Armor as protection, identity, an expression of ambition and worldview

In a display case at the Tokyo National Museum rests the armor of a daimyō from Mino. Its very appearance transports us to a time when everything was different—life, thoughts, and honor itself. Its dō—the central breastplate—is an okegawa-dō from the late Sengoku period, crafted from vertically riveted steel segments (tatehagi) arranged like the curved staves of a barrel. Lacquered in a deep, matte navy blue, it is brought to life only by subtle silk lacing in kebiki-odoshi style, in the color of faded red, running along the edges and parts of the kusazuri—the plate apron that protected the thighs. Higher up we see the munaita—the top plate shielding the sternum, covered with an additional layer of lacquer and secured with intricately forged rivets. On the sides—wakiita, crescent-shaped side plates from which double straps, takahimo, extend to tie the whole under the armpit. And at the back—an almost imperceptible but significant asymmetry: though the piece appears monolithic, the dō opens like a shell. It is a ni-mai-dō (二枚胴), a two-part construction where the logic of battle meets the logic of movement.

It is precisely the dō—the breastplate, the torso, the core of the armor—that constituted the heart of the samurai's armor, both literally and symbolically. The Japanese kanji 胴 consists of two components: ⺼ (a variant of 肉 – flesh, meat) and 同 (together, shared). Its very structure speaks of physicality and unity—of protecting the body as a whole, not just in part. In modern language, dō still refers to the chest, the torso, and in martial arts such as kendō or iaidō, it designates the central torso protector—an echo of ancient battlefields that still resounds in today's wooden training halls. In medieval Japan, however, the dō was not merely a piece of metal: it was the space between intent and strike, life and death. And also a reflection of its owner’s worldview and ambition.

In times of constant war and uncertainty, the breastplate became a sign of belonging, a bearer of the family crest (mon), a medium of expression and a tool of individuation. Every detail—the type of clasp, the line of rivets, the lacquer, the color of the lacing, the way it opened—revealed something about the wearer: his origins, taste, strength, humility, or desire for glory. The dō was never anonymous. Just as the samurai forged himself in iron discipline, so the armor was forged to reflect his image—physical, social, internal. Though now it lies motionless behind a museum case, it is easy to let its sight carry us to those former, nightmarish times of perpetual war and feel the sweet-metallic taste of blood in the air. If you find a moment—let us now speak in detail of the samurai breastplates 胴 (dō).

胴 (Dō) – The Meaning of the Character and Name

Before we begin our analysis of samurai breastplates, let us pause for a moment at the very word that defines them. Dō (胴)—at first glance a short and simple term—holds within it several clues, both linguistic and symbolic. It is not merely a technical term. It is also an echo of old Japan, where words were rarely just names for things—more often, they were doors to entire worlds of meaning.

The kanji 胴 consists of two parts: on the left is the radical ⺼, meaning “body,” “flesh”—that which is living, corporeal, organic. On the right is the character 同, meaning “together,” “the same.” The union of these two ideas creates a character that literally refers to the trunk, the torso—the central part of the human body, where the heart beats, the lungs reside, where life force is concentrated.

Contemporary Japanese uses the word dō in medical or athletic contexts: to denote the chest, torso, for example in expressions such as dōbui (trunk) or dō-ate (a strike to the torso in martial arts). But in the world of the samurai, dō meant far more than a body part—it denoted the center of existence, the core of the warrior’s physical presence, the point where spirit meets body.

In this sense, the breastplate was not merely a protective element—it became a kind of second skin. It enveloped not just the body, but the samurai's ki (you can read more about ki here: The Kanji 気 (Ki) – What Can We Learn from the Japanese Concept of Energy in Human Relationships?). With the dō, the warrior did not merely defend life—he declared that his life held value—and that is precisely why samurai breastplates were often beautifully and richly adorned.

The History of Japanese Breastplates (Dō)

Before the samurai breastplate dō took on its characteristic form that so fascinates us today in museum displays, it underwent a long evolution—both as a tool of survival and as a vehicle of aesthetic expression and status. Every era in Japanese history left its mark upon it: from the austere pragmatism of clan wars to the refined ornamentation of peaceful times. To understand the dō, one must delve into the history of Japanese armament—a history shaped not in isolation, but in dialogue with continental influences, local innovations, and—of course—the bloody wars of Japan.

When Iron Came from the Continent

The earliest attempts at protecting the torso on the Japanese archipelago date back to the Kofun period (c. 3rd–7th centuries), when warrior elites wore armor strongly inspired by Chinese models. These armors were composed of large iron or bronze plates tied with straps—they were massive, not very flexible, but effective against the simple weapons of the time. The torso was protected by large armor plates in the front and back, often supplemented by bell-shaped helmets (kabuto) and thigh guards.

In the Heian Period (794–1185), political power was concentrated in the hands of the court aristocracy and clans tied to the imperial center, and the greatest threat to a warrior's life came from arrows shot from horseback. The response was the monumental ō-yoroi armor—a heavy, majestic construction made up of hundreds of miniature plates (kozane), intricately laced together with silk odoshi. The torso was wrapped in the front and sides, with a dominant frontal panel (dō), which, however, was part of the entire "armored suit" rather than a distinguished element.

When Mobility Became Key

A true revolution came with the Kamakura period (1185–1333), when war began to resemble constant skirmishes more than ceremonial clashes of mounted archers. Warriors needed armor that allowed movement, climbing, and close combat. It was then that more flexible constructions emerged—such as dō-maru and haramaki-dō—which enveloped the torso not like a box, but like a tightly fitting breastplate that opened from the side or back. The first constructions with hinges appeared, and the dō began to acquire an individual character—as a separate piece of armor, often determining its overall style.

In the following centuries, especially during the Muromachi period (1336–1573), the form of the dō became increasingly diverse. Armors were experimented with—tying techniques, riveting, new lacquer coating methods were introduced, armor was reinforced with chainmail. A characteristic of these centuries was still manual production—each armor was a unique piece of craftsmanship, often tailored to a specific warrior.

When War Became Industry

The 16th century, during the tumultuous Sengoku period (1477–1600), was a time of total war. Feudal Japan had fractured into dozens of rival clans waging constant campaigns against each other. In this era, the dō became not just a protective element—but a product of war logistics. The need to arm thousands of soldiers led to the standardization and industrialization of armor production.

It was then that the okegawa-dō was born—the “breastplate like a tub,” named for its curved plates resembling barrel staves. Riveted—often horizontally (yokohagi) or vertically (tatehagi)—they formed durable and fast-to-produce armor, ideal for rank-and-file ashigaru and lower-ranking samurai. At the same time, lighter tatami-dō armors emerged, made of small plates joined with chainmail and fabric—easy to fold, cheap, and mobile.

Each clan developed its own solutions, and some dō types gained fame: yukinoshita-dō of Date Masamune, mōgami-dō from Akita, or the grotesquely expressive niō-dō, pressed into the shape of emaciated monks. Armor became a signature, and the dō—the heart of its form.

From Battlefield to Ceremonial Hall

After the Battle of Sekigahara and the establishment of the Tokugawa shogunate, peace prevailed for over 250 years (how peace was achieved among warriors—you can read here: What to Do with a Society of Samurai Who Only Know War and Death in Times of Peace? - The Clever Ideas of the Tokugawa Shoguns). This changed everything. Armor, including the dō, lost its combat function but gained new ones—representational, ceremonial, symbolic. Its form evolved toward aesthetics—sleeker lines, refined ornamentation, colorful lacquers, crests (mon), luxurious materials.

Wearing armor in the Edo period was more a ritual than a preparation for battle. The dō then became a testament to status, ancestral heritage, and aesthetic taste. Yet it remained the central element of the armor—the focal point of the gaze, the weight, and the meaning of the entire suit. And though it no longer stopped arrows and blades, it did not cease to protect—now safeguarding dignity, memory, and samurai identity.

Types of Dō Breastplates

At first glance, every dō is simply a breastplate—a piece of armor protecting the warrior’s torso. But upon closer inspection, one realizes that Japanese armor knew no single standard. On the contrary—it was a world of subtle distinctions and solutions tailored to the needs, conditions, and personality of the samurai. In the construction of the dō is revealed what is most beautiful in the Japanese art of war: the union of functionality, engineering precision, and refined beauty.

Below we will explore two main classifications of the dō: the first concerns construction—that is, the architecture of the breastplate and how it is worn; the second concerns style, encompassing techniques, outward form, and aesthetic characteristics.

Construction Types – How the Dō Opens to the World

□ Ni-mai dō (二枚胴) – literally "two-piece breastplate," this classic form is composed of two large halves—left and right—connected on one side with a hinge, and on the other with a cord or metal hook. It opens like a clam shell, which is why it is often compared to that shape (a metaphor preserved in language). Popular from the Sengoku period through Edo, it combined solidity with ease of donning—a compromise between protection and comfort.

□ Go-mai dō (五枚胴) – "five-plate breastplate," a more flexible variant composed of five smaller elements: two front, two side, and one back plate. With more connection points and a greater number of "folds," it better conformed to the warrior's body and allowed for greater range of motion. Ideal for infantry and mounted officers who needed a balance between protection and mobility.

□ Ryō-awase dō (両合わせ胴) – armor that opens on both sides, symmetrical. The front and back are identical, and the fastenings are located on both sides. This type had a great advantage: it could be quickly removed if the samurai was wounded or if there was a need to rapidly change attire. This construction was rarer, but valued for its practicality.

□ Haramaki dō (腹巻胴) – literally "belly-wrapping armor," opens at the back, as if worn like a sash. This is an older type, popular among lower-ranking warriors and foot soldiers. Though less impressive, it had its charm—the rear lacing was sometimes hidden by an additional garment, making the dō appear as a seamless protective shell.

□ Maekake dō (前掛け胴), also known as haraate (腹当て) – the simplest of all, limited to the front plate only. It did not protect the back, so it was used rather as an additional reinforcement, for example under a kimono or during training. Occasionally it was also used by ashigaru—foot soldiers—when entire units had to be outfitted quickly and cheaply.

Stylistic Types – When the Dō Speaks of Aesthetics and Region

□ Dō-maru (胴丸) – opens under the right arm, often without hinges, tightly wrapping the body. This was a type of elite armor, worn by higher-ranking samurai in the Kamakura and Muromachi periods. Its construction resembles that of an ancient knight’s armor, but with the full finesse of Japanese lacing and lacquering.

□ Tatami dō (畳胴) – “folding” armor, built from small plates (kozan, karuta, or kikko) connected with chainmail or silk. Lighter and more flexible, easy to store and transport—ideal for warriors on the move. In the Edo era, when battles were less frequent, tatami dō was also used by palace guards or the escorts of daimyō.

□ Hotoke dō (仏胴) – with a smooth, polished surface, almost without divisions or bulges—resembling the calm belly of a meditating Buddha, hence the name. It was an aesthetic choice—a symbol of simplicity, calm, and inner strength. Often lacquered in deep black or red, sometimes with subtle golden ornaments.

□ Okegawa dō (桶側胴) – “barrel-side breastplate”—composed of vertical (tatehagi) or horizontal (yokohagi) segments, riveted together like wooden staves of a tub. It became the dominant type in the 16th century—simple to produce, solid, and at the same time aesthetic. Often adorned with family emblems (mon) and clan colors.

□ Yukinoshita dō / Sendai dō – associated with the legendary Date Masamune, the famous one-eyed daimyō of Sendai. Characteristic of the Tōhoku region—it combined a striking appearance with simplicity of construction. Often included unique details, such as lacquered plates in a plum hue and original proportions.

□ Mōgami dō (最上胴) – an “overlapping” type of armor, with horizontal segments slightly overlapping each other. Valued for its flexibility and impact resistance.

□ Nuinobe dō (縫延胴) – a decorative version of the breastplate with a characteristic extended lacing style (odoshi), giving the armor a more “textile” appearance.

□ Hatomune dō (鳩胸胴) – with a central protrusion resembling a pigeon’s breast—a borrowing from European peascod-style breastplates. Often used in contact with the Portuguese and Spanish in the 16th century—a sign of nanban influence ("southern barbarians"—i.e., Europeans, primarily Portuguese and Spanish).

□ Niō dō (仁王胴) – a grotesque form with pressed, contorted facial features resembling the temple guardian deities Niō. Wearing such armor was meant not only to intimidate the enemy but also to manifest the warrior’s spiritual power.

□ Dangae dō (段替胴) – “layered armor,” often combining various techniques and styles in a single construction—for example, the lower part riveted, the upper laced, sometimes multicolored. A favorite type among eccentric daimyō.

□ Hishinui dō (菱縫胴) and Munemenui dō (胸縫胴) – armors in which the lacing and chest patterns formed geometric or floral motifs. These were often show armors—less useful in battle, but stunning in craftsmanship.

In this way, the dō—the samurai breastplate—ceases to be merely a piece of metal upon a warrior’s chest. It becomes a story of region, era, status, character, and imagination of its owner. And each of its variations is like a verse—a fragment of the great saga of the Japanese spirit of war, inscribed in lacquer, metal, and silk.

How the Samurai Breastplate (dō) Is Constructed

Although samurai armor may appear from a distance as a uniform shell, every part of it is the result of precise engineering, artisanal craftsmanship, and aesthetic imagination. Especially the dō—the breastplate—is not merely “metal on the chest,” but a complex structure in which every component serves a specific purpose: protective, structural, decorative, or symbolic. Its anatomy resembles that of a body—it has, in a sense, a spine, shoulders, muscles, and skin. Let us now take a closer look at this armored physiology.

The Heart of the Breastplate

The most important element of the dō is the set of main plates that form its core—protecting the chest and back. At the front is the nagagawa (長側)—a large, often arch-shaped front plate. At its top may sit the tateage (立挙)—an additional segment raised and tied to the shoulder guards, which protects the upper chest and sternum while also allowing for better adaptation of the breastplate to the posture of the body.

Depending on the period and style, these plates could be smooth (as in hotoke-dō), vertically or horizontally riveted (as in okegawa-dō), composed of segments (go-mai), or made from small interlinked plates (tatami-dō). The thickness of the steel ranged from a few to over ten millimeters—thick enough to stop a sword cut, yet not so heavy as to hinder movement.

Kanagu mawari – Ornamental Frame and Fastening System

Above the main plates, we find a set of components known as kanagu mawari—like a frame around the warrior's torso. These serve both technical and aesthetic purposes. They include:

→ Munaita (胸板) – the upper plate beneath the neck, protecting the throat and upper chest. Often protrudes slightly forward, sometimes covered with leather or lacquered.

→ Oshitsuke-no-ita (押付板) – panels pressing the upper part of the armor against the body, often with a chin cut-out.

→ Wakiita (脇板) – small side plates beneath the armpits—hidden, but essential for wearing comfort.

→ Watagami (綿上) – the shoulder straps of the armor, broad and flexible, often covered with leather and silk, connecting the breastplate with the helmet or sleeves (sode). Their shape spoke volumes about the owner's class and taste.

Some of these parts were additionally adorned with gold, engraving, embossing, or family crests.

Kusazuri – The Protective Apron

Hanging from the lower edge of the dō were the kusazuri (草摺), the characteristic skirt-like segments. Their function was to protect the hips, buttocks, and upper thighs from side and low strikes. Kusazuri were attached using leather straps or metal loops, and the panels themselves were composed of plates laced together with silk or cord, creating a flexible yet resilient shield.

The number of segments varied depending on the type of armor—most often four to seven—and their arrangement could be asymmetrical, especially in haramaki-dō. Over time, they were also decorated, for example by using cords in the clan’s colors (odoshi), painting symbols on them, or adding ornamental studs.

Other Details: Gyōyō, Kohire, Kattari, Uketsubo, Fukurin

▫ Gyōyō (杏葉) – decorative plates shaped like apricot leaves, hanging from the shoulders of the armor. In addition to their ornamental function, they often indicated clan affiliation or were used to fasten additional elements.

▫ Kohire (小札) – small “sleeves” or shoulder guards made of plates, protecting the upper arm.

▫ Kattari (割立) – reinforcements and protrusions that stabilized the dō and helped keep it in proper alignment on the body.

▫ Uketsubo (受壷) – metal rings used to fasten belts, harnesses, or additional weaponry.

▫ Fukurin (縁金) – metal edging of the plates, often made of brass or gold-plated steel. Not only did this reinforce the structure, but it also gave the armor an elegant, refined appearance.

Ornamentation – The Armor as a Canvas

The dō was rarely plain and “naked.” Japanese aesthetics sought harmony even on the battlefield, which is why breastplates were often small works of art. Among the adornments were:

• Mon (紋) – family crests—often painted or embossed on the front or back of the breastplate. Simple, symbolic, elegant (more about samurai family crests can be read here: Kamon of 15 Strongest Samurai Clans of Japan).
• Lacquer (urushi) – resistant to moisture and corrosion, used in black, red, indigo, and even gold finishes.
• Odoshi (縅) – the lacing of the armor, which not only joined the segments but also gave it a distinctive color identity. The colors of the odoshi could indicate clan, rank, personal taste, or affiliation with a school of combat.
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Each dō was therefore not only a mechanism of protection but also a manifesto of identity. Its parts—like organs in a body—worked together, creating harmony between movement, defense, art, and the warrior’s spirit.

How the Dō Was Worn and Fastened

Samurai armor was not hastily thrown on like a coat—putting it on was a ritual. The dō was donned slowly, with precision, often with the help of a servant or fellow warrior who knew where to pull and where to loosen in order to secure it firmly without shifting the center of gravity.

A key role was played by takahimo—thick silk or leather cords threaded under the arms or through specially prepared holes at the sides of the breastplate. In ni-mai dō type armor, where the front and back parts were joined by a hinge, fastening on one side was sufficient. In other models, like the ryō-awase dō, the lacing was done on both sides—symmetrically—creating a neat, tight weave that allowed full mobility without compromising stability.

Movable segments such as the tateage or detachable kusazuri were often secured with kohaze—metal hooks or clasps that on one hand facilitated putting the armor on, and on the other allowed for quick adaptation to the situation: marching, infantry combat, or mounted warfare. Watagami and sode (shoulder guards) also had separate fastenings—designed so their weight was evenly distributed and did not restrict arm movement during swordplay.

Differences in the method of wearing and fastening the dō depended on its type, but also on the historical period and intended use of the armor. In times of civil war, when armor was worn almost daily, practicality took precedence over form. Hence the popularity of armor with hinges, clasps, and interchangeable components. In the Edo period, when the dō was more often worn during ceremonies and parades, some armor featured hidden or camouflaged fastenings, and its construction served primarily aesthetic purposes.

Removable kusazuri or maekake dō–type armor, which protected only the front of the body, were favored by those who prioritized speed, comfort, or simply—style. Because in the world of the samurai, every detail mattered—not only how you fought, but how you presented yourself as you stood motionless beneath the sky, waiting for the first sound of the battle drum.

What Were Samurai Breastplates Made Of?

The samurai breastplate dō was a masterpiece not only in terms of construction but also in materials—a perfect example of Japan’s ability to transform craftsmanship into art. The core of most dō was steel—usually low-carbon iron or galvanized steel (tetsu)—with the thickness selected according to purpose: from thin, flexible plates for ceremonial armor to massive combat-grade breastplates with central sections up to 3–5 mm thick. Sometimes the thickness varied within a single plate—thicker at the center for protecting the sternum, thinner at the edges for mobility.

But steel was only one of the materials used. Lighter alternatives, such as lacquered leather (nerigawa), bamboo, or even wood, appeared especially in ceremonial or travel armor. In the late Edo period, one could even encounter armor made of paper or fabric-based composites—tricks designed to deceive the eye during processions. In modern times, reproductions made of plastic are occasionally used, but it must be said plainly—they have nothing to do with authentic samurai craftsmanship, though they are favored in reenactments for their lower weight and cost.

The techniques used to make the dō were as diverse as its types. Plates were joined with rivets or cords—depending on the style—using the kebiki-odoshi technique (dense, parallel lacing) or sugake-odoshi (looser, decorative lacing at intervals). The cords, usually silk, were reinforced with lacquer, which made them resistant to moisture. Riveting required masterful precision—especially in okegawa-dō, where rows of rivets formed horizontal or vertical rhythms resembling the ribs of the armor. After assembly, the entire piece was lacquered—not only for aesthetics but also for protection from rain, sweat, and rust. Japanese lacquer—urushi—was an organic substance with exceptionally useful properties: durable, elastic, and capable of maintaining its luster for decades.

In ceremonial armor, the craftsman's artistic expression came to full bloom. Engravings, embossing, gilding, and intricate paintings depicting dragons, lions, lotus flowers, or Buddhist inscriptions appeared. Some armors even featured embroidered silk linings with quotes from Zen texts or family mottos. Every detail—from the arrangement of rivets to the color of the lacing—was intentional. The dō did not only protect—it spoke of spirit, lineage, and history.

Practical Features and Functionality of the Dō

Armor is a tool—and the dō was one of its most essential components. The balance between protection and freedom of movement was crucial. Too heavy—and it restricted fencing, running, and mounted combat. Too light—and it failed to fulfill its purpose. Each type of dō sought its own compromise: go-mai and tatami were more flexible, hotoke-dō provided near-impenetrable thickness—but at the cost of mobility.

A samurai had to fight regardless of the season—in summer heat and humidity, in winter snow. Thus, the dō had to be as “breathable” as possible. In segmented constructions, the spaces between plates naturally served this function, and the lacing allowed for tension adjustment. There were even armors that adapted to changes in body weight—thanks to flexible joints, cords, and open-back construction, the dō could “grow” with the warrior. This was particularly important in the Sengoku era, when soldiers fought in multi-week campaigns, often gaining or losing weight week by week.

Not every dō was made for the same purpose—ceremonial versions emphasized aesthetics, while combat versions prioritized durability. Removable kusazuri allowed the warrior to march long distances without hip pain, and then prepare for battle within minutes. Practicality was built into the structure of the dō—not as a compromise, but as a fundamental value. Armor was not an obstacle but an ally. And just as the sword had to become an extension of the arm, so the breastplate became an extension of the spine, a shield for the heart, a frame for courage.

The Multifaceted Role of the Dō

Though the dō was born out of the need to protect life, its history quickly extended beyond the battlefield. It became not only part of the samurai’s body but of his soul—a visible shell for inner values. In the Sengoku period, every color of lacing, every crest, every armor detail said something about the warrior’s identity. In the Edo period, those same elements became almost poetic declarations of style and spiritual stance. Armor with minimalist, austere finishes expressed the pursuit of wabi—modest elegance and disciplined spirit. Rich, colorful armor, full of embroidery and gilded detail—reflected a longing for glory, splendor, and visible status.

It is enough to compare the yukinoshita dō on one hand, and the lavish armor of a daimyō from Kyoto on the other—the former almost ascetic, the latter dripping with purple and gold. Both authentic, both samurai—yet each represents a different philosophy: silent authority versus visual might. This is not merely an aesthetic contrast, but a divergence in views on life, power, and the meaning of combat.

Today, the dō still lives—not on battlefields, but in museums, exhibitions, films, and historical reenactments. In anime, stylized breastplates appear on heroes who inherit not only swords but the symbolic weight of their ancestors’ armor. In Japanese Buddhist temples, one can sometimes find dō offered as votive gifts—a remnant from times when the warrior entrusted his strength to the gods.

Because Japanese armor—and the dō above all—is not just functional protection. It is a work of craftsmanship, a record of family history, an expression of its owner’s spirituality. In its form it unites logic and beauty, violence and elegance, martial practice and contemplation of life. That is why even today, when we gaze at a dō behind a museum pane, we feel it is more than armor—it is a portrait of the man who wore it.

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Discover the Katana – The Birth, Maturity, Wartime Life, and Noble Old Age of the Samurai Sword

Samurai War Banners: Japanese Heraldry Under Which Battles Were Fought

"Strong Japanese Women"

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    未開    ソビエライ

 An enthusiast of Asian culture with a deep appreciation for the diverse philosophies of the world. By education, a psychologist and philologist specializing in Korean studies. At heart, a programmer (primarily for Android) and a passionate technology enthusiast, as well as a practitioner of Zen and mono no aware. In moments of tranquility, adheres to a disciplined lifestyle, firmly believing that perseverance, continuous personal growth, and dedication to one's passions are the wisest paths in life. Author of the book "Strong Women of Japan" (>>see more)

Personal motto:

"The most powerful force in the universe is compound interest." - Albert Einstein (probably)

  Mike Soray

   (aka Michał Sobieraj)

未開    ソビエライ

 An enthusiast of Asian culture with a deep appreciation for the diverse philosophies of the world. By education, a psychologist and philologist specializing in Korean studies. At heart, a programmer (primarily for Android) and a passionate technology enthusiast, as well as a practitioner of Zen and mono no aware. In moments of tranquility, adheres to a disciplined lifestyle, firmly believing that perseverance, continuous personal growth, and dedication to one's passions are the wisest paths in life. Author of the book "Strong Women of Japan" (>>see more)

Personal motto:

"The most powerful force in the universe is compound interest." - Albert Einstein (probably)

Mike Soray

(aka Michał Sobieraj)

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