The Dog Shogun and His Vision

In the flourishing days of Edo-period Japan, particularly during the Genroku era, the nation was a land of stark contrasts. On one hand, culture and art blossomed, giving rise to masterful ukiyo-e prints and unrivaled kabuki theaters. On the other, everyday life was steeped in brutality. A samurai had the right to test the sharpness of his katana on a randomly encountered peasant, and mistreating dogs or starving horses was considered a personal matter for their owners. The fate of animals and the less fortunate lay solely in the hands of those in power. It was in this era of cruelty and indifference that Tokugawa Tsunayoshi emerged—a shogun who would later be known in history as the "Dog Shogun," a reformer whose vision of morality and compassion was far ahead of his time.

In 1687, Tokugawa Tsunayoshi issued a series of edicts known as Shōrui Awaremi no Rei (“The Law of Compassion for Living Beings”), which were revolutionary not only for Edo Japan but also on a global scale, including 17th-century Europe. These laws did not merely prohibit animal cruelty but introduced detailed regulations to ensure their protection. Dogs had to be fed and protected from starvation and beatings, and samurai were required to cease tanegiri falconry (hunting with falcons). Furthermore, the shogun banned samurai from killing impoverished commoners and mandated the construction of shelters for stray dogs, called inu-yashiki, where animals were fed and cared for. Even fishing practices were regulated, with rules introduced to minimize the suffering of fish. Tsunayoshi’s reforms extended beyond animal protection to encompass human welfare. Infanticide, particularly the killing of newborn daughters, was strictly prohibited (a practice that had previously been tolerated), and the registration of all pregnancies and births aimed to eliminate this grim reality.

Although Tsunayoshi was often mocked for his reforms and faced significant resistance, it is hard to deny how profoundly they surpassed the norms of his era. Over 300 years ago, the shogun attempted to establish principles that today we recognize as ethical standards in any modern democratic society (albeit with varying degrees of success). Tsunayoshi's laws reveal a fascinating contrast between the harshness of the samurai era and a vision of a society built on compassion and respect for all living beings. So, how was it possible that such visionary legal measures were introduced in what seemed to be a heartless, caste-bound Edo society?

Edo Japan in the Genroku Era

Life in Genroku

Under the rule of Tokugawa Tsunayoshi, Japan flourished during the Genroku era (1688–1704), a period celebrated as one of the most brilliant in the country’s history. This was a time when culture burst forth with the vibrant colors of ukiyo-e, the dynamic allure of theater, and the subtle elegance of everyday art. Yet, beneath this cultural brilliance lay societal tensions and the harsh realities of daily life.

Imagine Edo (modern-day Tokyo)—a bustling city with a population approaching one million, of which roughly 15% were samurai. In the narrow streets, crowds gathered around kabuki performances—spectators huddled on benches and the ground, mesmerized by actors, including men playing female roles, recounting tales of drama, love, and revenge. Shadows cast by paper lanterns danced on walls, while the aroma of fried tofu and fish wafted from nearby stalls. Kabuki, initially regarded as plebeian entertainment, gradually attracted elite attention, becoming a mirror of urban life and its emotions.

Meanwhile, ukiyo-e, or "pictures of the floating world," captured the hearts of the people. These woodblock prints, often depicting actors, courtesans, or famous landscapes, became accessible even to commoners. On bustling markets, amidst piles of rice and fish, one could find works by masters like Hishikawa Moronobu or Torii Kiyonobu. The bold lines, rich colors, and depictions of everyday life revealed both the beauty and ephemerality of the moment. Thanks to the mass production of ukiyo-e prints, art for the first time in Japanese history reached the homes of townspeople, merchants, and even farmers.

Let us not forget literature, which, though often aimed at the samurai class, resonated widely. Ihara Saikaku, a master of realistic prose, humorously and poignantly depicted the lives of townsfolk and warriors. Matsuo Bashō’s haiku—brief yet profoundly reflective—allowed readers to pause and perceive the beauty of everyday moments: a drop of dew on a bamboo leaf or the silence of an autumn morning.

Political Stability and Social Tensions

Beneath the artistic flourishing, Genroku-era Japan was like a porcelain vessel—beautiful but prone to cracks. Tokugawa rule guaranteed peace after centuries of war, but the cost of stability was high. The rigid caste system, divided into samurai, peasants, artisans, and merchants, dictated every aspect of a person’s life from birth to death.

Samurai, whose traditional role as warriors had diminished, sought new ways to maintain their prestige. Many, in a world devoid of epic battles, succumbed to idleness or violence. Disaffected youth with swords at their sides became a scourge on the streets, participating in tsuji kiri—random killings of passersby (more about this can be found here: Kabukimono Longing for War: Free Spirits, Deadly Rogues, and Madmen in Women’s Kimonos). However, among the samurai were those who engaged in administration, literature, or art, redefining their roles.

Townspeople—merchants and artisans—thrived in this era of economic and commercial growth. Their wealth and influence often eclipsed that of the samurai, despite their officially lower social standing. Peasants, who formed the largest segment of the population, toiled in rural communities, burdened by heavy taxes and strict regulations imposed by the administration.

Urbanization and the Challenges of Growing Cities

Edo, Osaka, Kyoto—these metropolises were vibrant organisms full of contrasts. In Edo, the center of power and grandeur, the imposing residences of daimyō (feudal lords) stood in stark contrast to impoverished neighborhoods, where makeshift stalls and huts were built on clay foundations.

The streets were filled with mixed scents of fish, incense, and charcoal smoke. During the day, crowds moved between markets, temples, and bathhouses, while at night, lanterns cast a warm glow on the cobblestone streets. Yet, in the alleys lurked gangs, and in the shadows roamed stray dogs, instilling fear and frustration among residents.

Urbanization brought new problems. Abandoned children (sutego) became so common that temples like Rokkakudō in Kyoto turned into last resorts for these infants. Stray dogs, living in crowded neighborhoods, posed a similar issue, threatening both public health and safety.

The Genroku era was an age of contradictions—a golden age of art and urban growth, yet rife with social tensions and efforts to adapt to a new order. It was within this context that Tokugawa Tsunayoshi began his reign, transforming not only the face of Japan but also the lives of its inhabitants.

The Dog Shogun and His Vision

During the flourishing Edo period of Japan, particularly in the Genroku era, the country was a land of stark contrasts. On one hand, culture and art thrived, with masterpieces of ukiyo-e and unparalleled kabuki theaters emerging. On the other, the brutality of daily life was ever-present. A samurai had the right to test the sharpness of his katana on a randomly encountered peasant, while mistreating dogs or starving horses was considered a private matter of their owners. The fate of animals and the weaker members of society depended solely on the whims of those in power. In this era of cruelty and indifference, Tokugawa Tsunayoshi emerged—a shogun later known in history as the "Dog Shogun" (Inukubō - 犬 inu, "dog"; 公方 kubō, "lord, shogun"). A reformer whose vision of morality and compassion was far ahead of his time.

In 1687, Tokugawa Tsunayoshi issued a series of decrees collectively known as Shōrui Awaremi no Rei (“Edicts on Compassion for Living Beings”), revolutionary not only in Edo Japan but also globally, including 17th-century Europe. The decrees prohibited cruelty towards animals and introduced detailed regulations to protect them. It was mandated that dogs were to be fed and protected from starvation or beatings, and samurai were prohibited from engaging in tanegiri (falconry hunts). Furthermore, the shogun banned samurai from killing peasants and ordered the construction of shelters for stray dogs, known as inu-yashiki, where the animals were fed and cared for. Even fishing practices were regulated to minimize the suffering of fish.

Tsunayoshi’s laws extended beyond animals to address the welfare of humans. Infanticide, particularly of newborn daughters, was strictly forbidden (a practice that had previously been tolerated). The registration of all pregnancies and births was introduced to help eradicate this practice.

Although Tsunayoshi was often ridiculed for his reforms, and his policies faced opposition, it is hard to overlook how much they transcended the norms of his time. Over 300 years ago, this shogun attempted to implement principles that today are recognized as ethical standards in modern democratic societies (albeit inconsistently). Tsunayoshi's laws reveal a fascinating contrast between the harsh realities of the samurai era and a vision of society founded on compassion and respect for all living beings.

Who Was the Dog Shogun?

Tokugawa Tsunayoshi, the fifth Tokugawa shogun, is a figure surrounded by controversy and legend. His life story reads like a dramatic tale of contentious decisions, noble intentions, and mixed results. Known as the “Dog Shogun” (Inukubō), a nickname stemming from his obsession with animal welfare, his legacy is one that both inspires and provokes mixed emotions.

Childhood Under Keishō-in’s Care

Born in 1646 as the fourth son of Tokugawa Iemitsu, the third shogun of the Tokugawa dynasty and a descendant of Japan's unifier Tokugawa Ieyasu, Tsunayoshi’s birth did not foretell greatness. As a younger son, he was not destined to be a warrior or leader but a scholar. His mother, Keishō-in, a woman of modest merchant origins from Kyoto, played a crucial role in shaping his character. Her determination, ambition, and influence were pivotal in his later life.

Keishō-in, known for her religious devotion and pragmatism, raised Tsunayoshi away from the violent world of samurai duels and political intrigue, sheltering him in an environment filled with Buddhist scriptures and Confucian teachings. Tsunayoshi grew up in an atmosphere of intellectual development, where the strict moral principles of Zhu Xi (Shūki), a Chinese Confucian philosopher, permeated everyday life. These teachings, interwoven with his mother’s nurturing care, likely shaped his somewhat eccentric rule.

While his older brothers trained in martial arts, Tsunayoshi delved into classical Chinese and Japanese texts. Even as a child, he was nicknamed Tokumatsu, reflecting a destiny shaped by virtues, goodness, and nobility. Seeing his younger son's lack of interest in military glory but recognizing his intellect, Tokugawa Iemitsu designated him as the daimyō of the Tatebayashi domain, a peaceful retreat away from political power.

But fate had other plans.

The Path to Power

The death of his elder brother, Ietsuna, in 1680 opened the door for Tsunayoshi’s rise to power, though not without resistance. Whispers of conspiracy and debates about succession echoed through the corridors of the palace. Senior Tokugawa officials questioned whether a scholar who had never worn armor could rule from the Edo throne. Ultimately, with the support of his mother and some political maneuvering, Tsunayoshi ascended as the fifth shogun at the age of 34.

The early years of his rule showed promise. With the assistance of his experienced advisor, Hotta Masatoshi, Tsunayoshi introduced administrative reforms and maintained order in the growing Edo. As tairō (Great Elder), Hotta efficiently managed state affairs, allowing Tsunayoshi time to pursue his studies.

The Influence of Yanagisawa Yoshiyasu

In 1684, a tragic event changed Tsunayoshi’s reign. Hotta Masatoshi was murdered during a heated argument at the castle by his cousin, Inaba Masayasu. This tragedy deeply shook the shogun, leading to his withdrawal from active governance and increasing dependence on his chief chamberlain and trusted advisor, Yanagisawa Yoshiyasu.

Yanagisawa, a cunning and ambitious man, quickly gained unrestricted access to the shogun, manipulating decisions and consolidating his power. Meanwhile, Tsunayoshi increasingly devoted himself to spiritual reflection and the implementation of reforms rooted in the Confucian ideals of compassion and harmony.

Compassion and Karma

Tsunayoshi’s Shōrui Awaremi no Rei laws, introduced in 1685, were deeply influenced by his personal experiences and spiritual beliefs. Raised under the moral teachings of Confucianism, he was taught that compassion and protection of the weak were pillars of an ethical state. Additionally, his spiritual advisor, the monk Ryūkō, suggested that Tsunayoshi’s past karmic debts, possibly from excessive killing in previous lives, could explain his personal tragedies, including the loss of his young son and the lack of another heir.

Moreover, Tsunayoshi was born in the Year of the Dog, according to the Chinese zodiac, which astrologers interpreted as a sign of his special connection with these animals. These influences converged to form the unique vision of a shogun who believed that compassion and the protection of life were essential to the moral and spiritual foundations of his state.

Intentions

Tsunayoshi believed that his role as a ruler was not only to ensure political stability but also to uphold the moral fabric of society. Inspired by Confucian ideals of the "benevolent ruler," he sought to emulate the mythical Chinese emperors Yao and Shun, who governed with justice and care for the lower classes. Buddhism, with its emphasis on compassion for all living beings, also had a profound influence on his policies.

The edicts aimed to counter the brutality that was part of daily life in feudal Japan—especially among the samurai, for whom violence was intrinsic to their ethos. Tsunayoshi sought to create a society where human and animal life would be treated with greater respect.

Key Provisions of the Edicts

Between 1685 and 1709, Tsunayoshi issued a series of laws designed to protect living beings, collectively known as Shōrui Awaremi no Rei:

1. Prohibition of Animal Killing: The edicts imposed a complete ban on killing dogs, birds, fish, and other creatures (though the humane killing of certain birds and fish for food was permitted, as they were staples of the Japanese diet).
2. Special Protection for Dogs: Dogs, symbolically significant to Tsunayoshi, were given exceptional care. Special shelters, known as inu-yashiki, were established in Edo, accommodating tens of thousands of dogs at their peak.
3. Registration of Pregnancies and Children: To prevent infanticide, which was relatively common among the poorer classes, officials were required to register pregnancies and newborns. Provisions were also made for abandoned children.
4. Ban on Hunting: Hunting and fishing were severely restricted. Even hunting falcons used by samurai in takagari (traditional falconry—more on this here: Samurai and His Falcon – The Noble Tradition of Takagari Hunting) were retired.
5. Severe Punishments for Violations: Violations, such as killing a dog or unauthorized hunting, were met with harsh penalties, including exile or even execution.
6. Establishment of Life Protection Commissioners (Shōrui Bugyō): Dedicated offices were created to oversee compliance with the edicts. Commissioners were tasked with monitoring animal welfare and adjudicating cases related to animal treatment.
7. Ban on Using Animals for Samurai Training: Young samurai were prohibited from practicing their combat skills on live animals, a common custom at the time, especially involving dogs.
8. Restrictions on Animal Trade: Trade in products made from animal bones, skins, or feathers was banned to reduce the killing of animals for profit.
9. Infrastructure for Animal Shelters: Beyond the dog shelters in Edo, the edicts mandated the construction of similar facilities in other regions to provide care and sustenance for stray animals.
10. Care for Sick Travelers and Draft Animals: Inns and officials along trade routes were required to care for sick travelers and their animals, which were vital means of transport.
11. Humane Fishing Practices: Although fishing was essential to the Japanese diet, the edicts promoted fishing methods that minimized animal suffering.
12. Educational Campaigns: Public awareness campaigns were launched to instill compassion for living beings, drawing on Buddhist and Confucian teachings.
13. Special Holidays Promoting Nonviolence: Certain calendar days were designated to symbolize and promote nonviolence towards animals and humans.
14. Prohibition of Disposing of Dead Animals and Humans Improperly: To prevent health risks and symbolic disrespect for life, proper burials were mandated for both humans and animals.
15. Penalties for Neglecting Domestic Animals: Owners were obligated to provide food, shelter, and care for their animals. Neglect could result in penalties.

Intentions

Tsunayoshi was well aware that his laws would be seen as radical, but he believed they were necessary to combat the entrenched brutal practices of feudal Japan, shaped by centuries of civil war. By the Genroku era, Japan was a stable state, yet the samurai ethos still dominated the culture. Leaders like his father, Tokugawa Iemitsu, glorified violence as part of the warrior’s craft, organizing mass hunts where animals were slaughtered for sport.

Tsunayoshi sought to chart a new course founded on ideals of peace and morality. While his edicts were widely criticized as impractical and disproportionately strict, they aimed to build a society where life—both human and animal—was treated with dignity and care.

Humanitarian Aspects of the Shōrui Awaremi no Rei Laws

Protection of Abandoned Children

One of the most significant aspects of Tsunayoshi’s edicts was the protection of children, who were often victims of poverty and social inequality. During this period, the practice of abandoning infants, particularly girls, was common. A mandatory registration system for pregnant women and newborns was introduced to prevent infanticide. Abandoned children were provided shelter in newly established care facilities, and their upbringing was financed by local authorities or the community. This marked a groundbreaking change in a society where such children had previously been destined for neglect or death.

Prohibition of Abandoning the Sick and Ensuring Medical Care for Travelers

Special attention was given to travelers and the sick, who were often left to fend for themselves. Tsunayoshi ordered inns and rest stations to provide shelter and medical care to anyone in need, regardless of their social status. Local authorities were tasked with monitoring these cases and funding treatments. In cases where a sick traveler passed away, dignified funeral rites were mandated as a show of respect for every life.

Impact on Reducing Violence in Society

The edicts significantly curtailed violence, which had previously been institutionally tolerated. Samurai were prohibited from administering death sentences at their discretion, a practice that had been commonplace, often over minor offenses to their honor. Young samurai were also forbidden from testing their combat skills on live animals or humans. The strict enforcement of these laws led to a marked decrease in random killings and acts of violence, contributing to greater safety in cities.

Controversies

Criticism from Samurai and the Elite

Samurai, who had long been the ruling elite, saw the edicts as a direct attack on their status. The prohibition of violence against both people and animals struck at the core of their warrior ethos, where death was an accepted, and often glorified, aspect of life. Many samurai viewed these laws as "effeminate" and contrary to tradition, cementing Tsunayoshi's reputation among them as an eccentric detached from reality.

The Cost of Maintaining Animal Shelters

One of the most criticized aspects of the law was the cost of building and maintaining massive dog shelters in Edo. The largest of these, such as the one in Nakano, could house up to 100,000 animals, and their upkeep required enormous financial resources, burdening local communities. Residents of Edo often mockingly referred to the dogs as Oinu-sama ("Lord Dogs"), expressing frustration over the extravagant spending on animals while many people lived in poverty.

Executions: Myths and Reality

Some contemporary and later critics claimed that hundreds of people were executed daily for violating the laws of compassion. While sources such as Sannō Gaiki suggest such numbers, historical research indicates these claims are exaggerated. However, severe penalties, including death or exile, were applied in cases of significant violations, such as killing animals or acts of cruelty. This severity was intended to deter potential offenders and was typical of Tokugawa-era governance.

Interference with Traditional Practices

The ban on hunting, including falconry, was met with discontent among the samurai elite, who viewed these practices as forms of recreation and prestige. Even among Buddhist monks, there were voices of criticism, seeing the edicts as an excessive interference with the natural order of the world.

Modern and Historical Perspectives

Historians, such as Beatrice Bodart-Bailey, note that while the edicts were strict and often perceived as fanatical, they were also groundbreaking. Tsunayoshi was among the first rulers in history to attempt to incorporate principles of compassion as a foundation for social policy. The criticism attached to his legacy stemmed largely from a misunderstanding of his intentions and the resistance of samurai and elites to changes that limited their privileges.

Consequences of the Laws of Compassion

The implementation of Shōrui Awaremi no Rei by Tokugawa Tsunayoshi was an unprecedented event whose impact extended across many aspects of life in Japan—from daily social practices to economic, cultural, and religious spheres. What was intended as an act of mercy for all living beings became a catalyst for profound changes and conflicts.

Social Effects of the Edicts

One of the most visible outcomes was a shift in attitudes toward violence. The prohibition of arbitrary punishment by samurai and the protection of animals created a new dynamic in social relations. Samurai, who had long taken pride in their role as guardians of order and "justice" based on power, began to feel increasingly alienated. Traditional ideals of honor and martial discipline were replaced by laws enforcing mercy and restraint—qualities many samurai saw as alien to their ethos. Among the lower social classes, the edicts were met with mixed reactions. On one hand, they provided protection against cruelty; on the other, their strictness and associated costs caused frustration.

Animal shelters, especially those for dogs, symbolized not only care for life but also social divisions. While Edo residents suffered from food shortages and high taxes, dogs—often living in greater comfort than people—were fed and cared for. This disparity fueled public resentment and became fodder for satirical tales and urban gossip.

Economic Challenges

Implementing the Laws of Compassion imposed significant financial burdens. Maintaining massive animal shelters, such as the one in Nakano that could house up to 100,000 dogs, required substantial resources. Taxes imposed on Edo’s residents and other cities not only funded animal care but also supported the bureaucratic oversight needed to enforce the laws. This additional burden exacerbated economic challenges, including inflation and rising prices of basic goods caused by Tsunayoshi’s fiscal policies.

Restrictions on hunting and fishing also had unintended side effects. In a society where fish and poultry were primary protein sources, these new regulations caused discontent. Many fishermen and hunters lost their livelihoods, leading to tensions and attempts to circumvent the law.

Cultural Transformations

In the cultural sphere, Tsunayoshi’s edicts sparked a wave of creativity, often taking the form of critique. Writers of literature and kabuki dramas used subtle allegories to mock the “compassionate” policies, portraying them as disconnected from reality. Anonymously penned works such as Sannō Gaiki became symbols of this satirical opposition, painting Tsunayoshi as an eccentric obsessed with dogs to the point of madness.

On the other hand, these changes prompted deeper reflection on the value of life, both human and animal. Buddhist ideals of compassion began to permeate everyday consciousness, laying the groundwork for a more humane approach to the natural world. While initially imposed, this mindset had a lasting influence on how the Japanese viewed their place within the ecosystem.

Religious Aspects and Rituals

The Laws of Compassion were deeply rooted in Tsunayoshi’s religious beliefs. Buddhist teachings on karma, suggesting that suffering in life could result from harm caused to others in past lives, significantly influenced the shōgun’s policies. Ryūkō, Tsunayoshi’s spiritual advisor, emphasized that protecting animals, especially dogs, could bring spiritual relief and redemption.

Yūten, a monk from the Jōdo-shū sect known for his exorcisms and soul-healing practices, played a notable role. His efforts to protect the souls of abandoned children and animals led to new ceremonies aimed at helping both the living and the deceased. Rituals dedicated to the souls of children who were victims of infanticide became a groundbreaking step in Japanese spirituality, which had previously focused primarily on adults.

Conclusion

After Tokugawa Tsunayoshi’s death in 1709, his successor, Tokugawa Ienobu, quickly repealed the controversial Shōrui Awaremi no Rei. The Laws of Compassion, intended to protect life and reduce violence, became a symbol of extravagance and excessive governance. Tsunayoshi himself, remembered as the “Dog Shogun,” became the subject of ridicule and criticism not only from samurai but also from historians and writers of later periods. The dog shelters in Edo were dismantled, and the remnants of his compassionate policies faded into obscurity, though they left a mark on Japanese consciousness.

The repeal of the edicts did not result in an immediate return to the brutality of earlier times. Despite their controversies, Tsunayoshi’s reign marked the beginning of a slow cultural shift from the violent samurai ethos toward a more compassionate and humane approach to life. Modern historians recognize that while his policies were marred by significant flaws, their humanitarian message laid the groundwork for a gradual evolution in Japanese society.

Tsunayoshi’s legacy remains complex and full of contradictions. While history remembers him as an eccentric ruler whose decisions burdened his people, some see him as a visionary who sought to temper the harshness of society in a way that was ahead of his time. The Shōrui Awaremi no Rei laws may have passed, but the debate over their impact on Japanese culture and history continues to this day, reflecting the complexity of humanity’s pursuit of justice and compassion.

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    未開    ソビエライ

 An enthusiast of Asian culture with a deep appreciation for the diverse philosophies of the world. By education, a psychologist and philologist specializing in Korean studies. At heart, a programmer (primarily for Android) and a passionate technology enthusiast, as well as a practitioner of Zen and mono no aware. In moments of tranquility, adheres to a disciplined lifestyle, firmly believing that perseverance, continuous personal growth, and dedication to one's passions are the wisest paths in life. Author of the book "Strong Women of Japan" (>>see more)

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  Mike Soray

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未開    ソビエライ

 An enthusiast of Asian culture with a deep appreciation for the diverse philosophies of the world. By education, a psychologist and philologist specializing in Korean studies. At heart, a programmer (primarily for Android) and a passionate technology enthusiast, as well as a practitioner of Zen and mono no aware. In moments of tranquility, adheres to a disciplined lifestyle, firmly believing that perseverance, continuous personal growth, and dedication to one's passions are the wisest paths in life. Author of the book "Strong Women of Japan" (>>see more)

Personal motto:

"The most powerful force in the universe is compound interest." - Albert Einstein (probably)

Mike Soray

(aka Michał Sobieraj)

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