Shinobi in Edo

(Today is Ninja Day – December 5th – so let me invite you to read a piece about ninja. Or rather, shinobi, as we’ll be discussing the Edo period when the term "ninja" did not yet exist.)

Ninja, the famed silent warriors hiding in the shadows of history, are among the most recognizable icons of Japan in pop culture. Interestingly, the very name "ninja" is a 20th-century invention born of mass culture. When discussing their history, the Japanese use a different term: since the 8th century and to this day—1,200 years before the term "ninja" came into being—they have referred to them as shinobi, masters of stealth, espionage, and survival. Their legends, filled with extraordinary tales, took on a mystical character, particularly during the peaceful Edo period, when the bloody wars between samurai clans had ceased. It was during this time that stories emerged about shinobi who could transform into owls, run on water using special mizugumo shoes, or disappear in clouds of ensatsutō smoke, teleporting to the other side of a forest. Were these merely fantasies? Or is there a grain of truth in every story?

The Edo period (1603–1868) was a time of peace, during which the former ranks of samurai and shinobi had to find new roles. For shinobi, this meant a transformation—from silent assassins and spies to guardians of order, informants, and secret agents of the shogunate. Instead of sneaking into enemy castles, they maintained the safety and stability of the Tokugawa government—one could say they fought in the service of peace (or tyranny, depending on your perspective on the Tokugawa rule). Meanwhile, their actual skills, such as camouflage, trap evasion, or survival in extreme conditions, began to grow into myths. Literature, kabuki theater, and ukiyo-e art expanded their image, portraying shinobi as nearly superhuman figures. But what was the truth? Shinobi were masters of disinformation. So, we cannot know for sure. After all, what kind of spies would they be if we knew everything about them?

Still, we do know a little about shinobi. In this article, we will journey to 18th-century Japan to uncover what truly happened to them during the time of peace. We will examine the legends of their incredible skills and explore how these stories emerged—from literature to kabuki performances. So, what does a ninja do when there are no wars to fight?

Shinobi or Ninja? Etymology and Terminological Precision

First, let’s clarify something that often causes confusion. Although the word "ninja" is immediately associated with Japanese warriors hiding in the shadows, the term itself is relatively young. In this article, we will use a more historically accurate and precise term—"shinobi." Why? Because "ninja" is a product of the 20th century, born from the need to simplify Japanese history for mass culture, whereas "shinobi" is a name with deep roots, reaching back over a thousand years.

The Origin of the Term "Shinobi"

The name "shinobi" (忍び) derives from the verb shinobu (忍ぶ), which means "to hide," "to endure patiently," "to persevere," or "to act in secrecy." It first appeared in texts such as the Man’yōshū, the oldest Japanese poetry anthology, in the 8th century. Over time, "shinobi" came to be used to describe individuals specializing in the art of stealth and infiltration. A shinobi is precisely that: a spy or assassin, someone operating either "undercover" or in the shadows.

Interestingly, the kanji 忍 consists of two elements: "刃" (ha), meaning "blade," and "心" (kokoro), signifying "heart" or "soul." This poetic depiction of shinobi symbolizes a person whose heart and soul are "under the blade," representing both endurance and the ability to act under pressure.

Regional Names for Shinobi

In different regions of Japan, shinobi were known by various names, reflecting their roles and local traditions. For example:

• Rappa – a term for warrior-spies who primarily worked in groups, specializing in sabotage.
• Suppa – a designation for spies with particular skills in infiltration.
• Kusa – literally "grass," referring to shinobi who concealed themselves in the terrain.
• Nokizaru – "monkeys on rooftops," a name tied to their ability to climb and infiltrate through hard-to-reach places.

Each of these names emphasized specific aspects of their skills, showcasing the diversity of shinobi techniques depending on regional needs.

The Emergence of the Term "Ninja"

The term "ninja" (忍者) began to appear in literature as early as the 19th century, but it did not gain widespread popularity until the 1950s. This was when Japanese history began to penetrate the West, and filmmakers and writers sought simpler terms for a global audience. "Ninja" sounded more exotic and was easier to remember than "shinobi."

The popularization of the term "ninja" is primarily attributed to literature and films, such as the famous Shinobi no Mono series (1962). It was during this time that ninja became pop culture figures—ranging from brutal spies to nearly superhuman heroes capable of performing "magical tricks."

Shinobi in the Edo Period: New Roles in Times of Peace

The transition from the turbulent Sengoku period (1467–1615) to the stable Edo period (1603–1868) was a turning point not only for Japan but also for the shinobi. During the era of civil wars, they were indispensable warriors and spies who infiltrated enemy lines, playing a critical role in military strategy. However, when Tokugawa Ieyasu unified the country and established lasting peace, the shinobi had to adapt to a new reality. From silent assassins and masters of infiltration, they transformed into agents of peace—their skills found applications in various fields, but their legend slowly began to fade.

Guards and Bodyguards for the Daimyō

During the Edo period, shinobi were often employed as guards and bodyguards for daimyō and their castles. While their roles were no longer as spectacular as in times of war, their knowledge of defensive tactics and ability to react swiftly to potential threats made them invaluable. There are recorded cases of shinobi patrolling the areas around castles at night, searching for dangers. Their reputation as "invisible" people served as a deterrent to potential intruders.

Spies and Informants for the Tokugawa Shogunate

Tokugawa Ieyasu, who had personally utilized shinobi services during his rise to power, understood the value of their skills during peacetime. Many shinobi were employed as spies and informants, monitoring the activities of potentially rebellious daimyō or subversive groups. They acted as secret agents for the shogunate, observing political developments and reporting any threats to Tokugawa rule.

Teachers of Martial Arts and Survival Techniques

The skills of the shinobi—such as camouflage, trap evasion, and survival in harsh conditions—did not go to waste. Many of them became teachers of martial arts, especially those techniques that went beyond traditional kenjutsu or kyūjutsu. They taught their students how to survive in forests, use the environment for camouflage, and move silently. In this way, their knowledge was passed on to subsequent generations, often hidden under the guise of samurai schools.

Ordinary Life and Work: Hiding Their Past

Not every shinobi could find new employment in the service of the shogunate or daimyō. Many shinobi families chose to conceal their past to avoid social stigmatization. In times of peace, professions associated with war were often seen as shameful or dishonorable. Consequently, shinobi transitioned to ordinary occupations—becoming farmers, craftsmen, or merchants. However, their former skills were sometimes used to protect local communities, such as patrolling rural areas.

Edo Period Beliefs About Shinobi

The popular culture surrounding ninja and their extraordinary abilities is not necessarily rooted in Western interpretations. Japan itself possessed entertainment for the masses, where incredible stories about shinobi were shared. During the Edo period, shinobi underwent an extraordinary transformation—from secret agents and spies of wartime into nearly mythical figures, heroes of folklore and legend. Their real-life skills in blending into the background, using camouflage, or employing advanced espionage techniques were elevated in popular imagination to an almost divine level. Let’s explore some of the countless beliefs about their abilities during this era:

Invisibility – Masters of Camouflage

In folk tales, shinobi could become invisible, disappearing in the blink of an eye. It was imagined that shinobi used special potions or "spells" that allowed them to merge into the shadowy world. In reality, their ability to "disappear" was the result of mastering camouflage techniques.

• Black outfits often depicted in culture were, in fact, rarely used—shinobi typically dressed in clothing resembling that of common peasants, merchants, or servants, allowing them to blend into the crowd.
• Tools such as the kaginawa (hook and rope) enabled them to climb castle walls and avoid direct confrontations, which to observers could look like "disappearing."
• Popular ukiyo-e prints and kabuki performances depicted shinobi as figures literally vanishing in clouds of smoke, a portrayal inspired by the use of ensatsutō—a distraction technique involving smoke from burning gunpowder.

Shape-Shifting – Foxes (kitsune), Magical Cats (bakeneko), and Owls (fukuro)

Some legends attributed to shinobi the ability to transform into animals, particularly foxes, cats, or owls.

• These beliefs likely stemmed from their mastery of camouflage and knowledge of nature—shinobi could mimic animal sounds to communicate or distract.
• In kabuki theater, they were portrayed as semi-mystical figures transforming into animals, reinforcing this image.
• Masks and animal costumes, part of their equipment, may have been used to confuse enemies at night, creating the illusion of transformation.

Elemental Control – Storms, Fire, and Water

Shinobi were said to possess the power to summon storms, create fire out of nothing, and even walk on water. In reality, these abilities were based on practical skills and tools.

• Walking on Water: Mizugumo, special floatation devices resembling flat snowshoes, were designed to help shinobi move across water. Although their practicality was limited, they created the impression of supernatural abilities.
• Creating Fire: Shinobi carried portable fire-starting kits (similar to modern flint and steel), which allowed them to quickly ignite torches or cause confusion with fire in the darkness. They also used gunpowder and other chemicals.

Teleportation – Sudden Disappearances

Stories of shinobi who could suddenly vanish and reappear elsewhere became popular through theater performances and ukiyo-e prints.

• In reality, shinobi were experts in using hidden passages and their intimate knowledge of the terrain. There are accounts of shinobi evading capture by disappearing into forests or caves, which appeared like teleportation.
• In Edo-period popular culture, these scenes were enhanced with optical illusions and techniques like smoke screens.

Superhuman Endurance and Strength

Shinobi were also perceived as people with extraordinary strength and endurance, capable of running many kilometers without rest.

• In reality, their endurance was the result of rigorous training and survival skills. Shinobi trained by running with weights, jumping over obstacles, and climbing.
• Their diet, consisting of light, energy-rich snacks, allowed them to maintain their stamina during missions—shinobi often carried hyorogan, energy balls made of rice, honey, and dried fruits.

Other Fascinating Shinobi Abilities

▫ The Art of “Mind Reading”: Shinobi were masters of observation—they analyzed their enemy’s gestures and facial expressions, creating the illusion that they could "read minds." They also meticulously prepared for each mission, including learning about the personalities and backgrounds of individuals they might encounter.

▫ Flying: Some legends speak of shinobi soaring through the air. These were exaggerations of their ability to leap great distances using techniques that we might now describe as parkour, as well as their skillful use of ropes and trees.

Where Did These Beliefs About Shinobi Come From?

The legend of shinobi as beings capable of superhuman feats emerged at the crossroads of history, folklore, and art. The Edo period, renowned for its rich theatrical, literary, and visual culture, played a crucial role in transforming the real skills of shinobi into mystical tales. These beliefs were reinforced by literary works, kabuki theater, ukiyo-e prints, and their ties to folklore (e.g., yōkai).

Edo Period Literature

► Bansenshukai (1676): This ninjutsu manual, written by Fujibayashi Yasutake, served as a guide for shinobi, detailing techniques for camouflage, trap evasion, and espionage. While the book was practical in nature, the public interpreted it as a collection of magical tricks, enhancing the image of shinobi as beings capable of extraordinary deeds.

► Ninpō Hikan (1681): Another shinobi manual, focusing on combat and survival techniques. Descriptions of infiltration and vanishing techniques were seen by the public as evidence of their “magical” abilities.

► Shōninki (1681): Written by Natori Masazumi of the Kii Province, this manual offered guidance on infiltration and camouflage tactics. It emphasized the psychological skills of shinobi and their ability to blend seamlessly into their surroundings.

Kabuki Theater

Kabuki theater, full of special effects and dramatic storytelling, played a central role in popularizing the image of shinobi as supernatural beings.

► Kanadehon Chūshingura (1748): Although this play focused on samurai, shinobi appeared as mysterious figures who vanished in plumes of smoke or moved in ways that resembled teleportation.

► Tsuchigumo (1697): A tale about a spider demon that portrayed shinobi as masters of illusion, capable of transforming into animals.

► Kabuki Special Effects: The use of ropes, smoke curtains, and lighting illusions made shinobi on stage appear to fly, disappear, or change form, cementing their mystical image in the minds of the audience.

Ukiyo-e Prints

Ukiyo-e prints from the Edo period played a significant role in shaping the mystical image of shinobi, depicting them as figures straddling the line between reality and fantasy. Often portrayed as silent, enigmatic warriors operating in the shadows, shinobi were surrounded by an aura of mystery and fear. Artists like Utagawa Kuniyoshi and Tsukioka Yoshitoshi used dramatic settings—moonlit landscapes, castle rooftops, and dense forests—to highlight their ability to hide and maneuver covertly. Shinobi were often depicted in dynamic poses, preparing for an attack or sneaking through the shadows. Details like dark clothing, masks, and weapons such as shuriken and swords underscored their expertise in infiltration and shadowy combat.

However, ukiyo-e did not limit themselves to realistic depictions of shinobi—they often incorporated supernatural themes, including yōkai and magical creatures. For instance, in series like "One Hundred Aspects of the Moon" by Tsukioka Yoshitoshi, shinobi are shown alongside nocturnal beings or in scenarios suggesting shape-shifting abilities or control over the elements. Themes such as battling demons, wielding magic, or employing illusions were popular in this art form, elevating shinobi to near-divine figures. Ukiyo-e, with its expressive and fantastical style, became a medium that amplified and immortalized shinobi legends, transforming them into heroes who existed between the human and spirit worlds.

The History of Shinobi After the Edo Period

During the Edo period, shinobi transitioned from silent assassins and spies of wartime to guards, informants, and agents serving the Tokugawa shogunate. In peacetime, their role diminished, and many shinobi began to hide their past, taking on ordinary occupations like farming or craftsmanship. However, the true decline of the shinobi profession occurred during the Meiji era (1868–1912), as Japan embarked on modernization. With the abolition of the feudal domain system (han) and the samurai class, shinobi as a social class lost their function. Rapid technological advancements, including the development of modern intelligence methods and firearms, rendered their skills obsolete. They ceased to exist as a real profession, giving way to a legend that took on a life of its own.

Although shinobi disappeared from the real world, their image survived and returned with newfound vigor in the 20th century, as Japan rediscovered its traditions in literature and art. In the early 20th century, stories about shinobi began to appear in books and magazines. A groundbreaking work was the series "Ninjutsu Hiyōban" by Rantarō Hanzawa (1910), which sparked interest in ancient shinobi techniques and legends. However, the true explosion of popularity came with post-war films and literature.

"Shinobi no Mono" (1962): This film series was one of the first major successes to portray shinobi as "ninja." Directed by Ichikawa Tokusaburō, it depicted them as masters of the shadows, and Raizō Ichikawa’s performance gave the characters depth and mystery. This series catapulted the term "ninja" to international fame.

In the 1970s and 80s, ninja became a global phenomenon, especially through action films and martial arts movies. Productions like "Enter the Ninja" (1981) and the "American Ninja" (1985) series contributed to the stereotypical image of ninja as mysterious warriors in black garb, skilled in superhuman martial arts.

Shinobi secured a lasting place in Japanese pop culture through works like "Ninja Hattori-kun" (1964, manga) and its later anime adaptation. However, the real breakthrough in ninja representation came with the manga "Naruto" (1999) by Masashi Kishimoto. The anime adaptation of Naruto became one of the rare works that defined an entire generation.

In the 1980s, ninja also became popular in the gaming world. The series "Ninja Gaiden" (1988) and games like "Shinobi" (1987) were among the first titles to popularize the ninja image in interactive entertainment. Later games like "Sekiro: Shadows Die Twice" (2019) explored both mythical and historical depictions of shinobi.

Conclusion

The shinobi of the Edo period remain a fascinating symbol of adaptability and the art of operating in the shadows. While their real roles during the Tokugawa era shifted from warriors to guards and secret police, their influence on Japanese culture was profound. It is worth noting that many shinobi families kept their traditions secret, passing down their skills as clan knowledge, even when the profession was no longer necessary. The survival of these traditions in the form of stories, techniques, or symbolic teachings ensured that shinobi never truly disappeared from Japan’s consciousness.

In pop culture, they reemerged as ninja—almost magical figures capable of feats beyond human capability. The modern image of ninja is the result of centuries of intertwined history, legend, and literature. Early 20th-century literary and cinematic works like "Shinobi no Mono" gave them new life, and subsequent decades saw an explosion of their popularity in the West. From action films to video games, shinobi became global cultural icons, blending elements of traditional Japan with modern entertainment.

Today, ninja remain one of Japan’s most recognizable symbols—heroes in games like "Ninja Gaiden" and "Sekiro", masters in manga and anime such as Naruto. Despite the passage of centuries, shinobi continue to inspire—not just as pop culture figures, but also as symbols of determination, ingenuity, and the ability to endure in a changing world. Although, to be fair, modern ninja have little in common with the shinobi of the Sengoku period…

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"Strong Japanese Women"

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    未開    ソビエライ

 An enthusiast of Asian culture with a deep appreciation for the diverse philosophies of the world. By education, a psychologist and philologist specializing in Korean studies. At heart, a programmer (primarily for Android) and a passionate technology enthusiast, as well as a practitioner of Zen and mono no aware. In moments of tranquility, adheres to a disciplined lifestyle, firmly believing that perseverance, continuous personal growth, and dedication to one's passions are the wisest paths in life. Author of the book "Strong Women of Japan" (>>see more)

Personal motto:

"The most powerful force in the universe is compound interest." - Albert Einstein (probably)

  Mike Soray

   (aka Michał Sobieraj)

未開    ソビエライ

 An enthusiast of Asian culture with a deep appreciation for the diverse philosophies of the world. By education, a psychologist and philologist specializing in Korean studies. At heart, a programmer (primarily for Android) and a passionate technology enthusiast, as well as a practitioner of Zen and mono no aware. In moments of tranquility, adheres to a disciplined lifestyle, firmly believing that perseverance, continuous personal growth, and dedication to one's passions are the wisest paths in life. Author of the book "Strong Women of Japan" (>>see more)

Personal motto:

"The most powerful force in the universe is compound interest." - Albert Einstein (probably)

Mike Soray

(aka Michał Sobieraj)

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