「二十五まで生き過ぎたり」

(Nijūgo made ikisugitari)

“Life is too long for someone who has lived 25 years”

 - Ichibei Ōtori, 1612, before his death

The True Image of Kabukimono?

In the dim light of smoky lanterns in an Edo tavern in 1611, a group of kabukimono makes a loud and grand entrance. Their brightly colored, sometimes feminine kimonos, heavy with lead weights sewn into the hems, thump with each step, while their decorated katanas – long, nearly scraping the floor – gleam with ornate tsuba and red scabbards. Laughter and disdainful shouts accompany them. The locals hunch over and fix their gaze on their plates, knowing that one wrong move might attract the attention of these rebels. For kabukimono, life is a celebration of extravagance and rebellion, but also an unpredictable, dangerous whirlwind that pulls everyone around them. They are loud and flamboyant, yet death also follows in their wake.

We must understand that Japan at the end of the 16th century had been in a near-constant state of war for many generations. Entire samurai families were born and died for one purpose only – to participate in this war, to kill enemies and defend their daimyō. If we take away war – what remains?

Kabukimono, the “mad ones” or “those who go against the grain,” appeared on Japanese streets at the end of the Sengoku era, as the turbulent times of war came to an end, and peace didn’t bring solace to everyone. Squadrons of unemployed samurai and rōnin, deprived of former glory and purpose, adopted an eccentric appearance and a life full of unrestrained freedom, symbolically rejecting societal conventions. "Kabuki" (傾奇) means "deviation" or "strangeness," and "mono" (者) – person. They were thus “strange people,” or, as one might say, “misfits.” It is from this group’s name that the famous kabuki theater, filled with colorful and bizarre characters, derives its title.

It is therefore no surprise that kabukimono have gained fame in popular culture today, especially in the West, where their rebellious, individualistic character resonates with values close to the audience. A samurai with a rebellious spirit, someone who breaks the rules and follows their own path – this kind of character captures the imagination, filling the frames of anime and movie adaptations. It is much easier to relate to such a character than to the true, historical samurai, whose essence is often foreign and incomprehensible to Europeans, who cherish freedom and independence.

Is the image of kabukimono that we know from media historically accurate, or was it created to suit modern entertainment needs? Characters like Kyojuro Rengoku from Demon Slayer, Gin Ichimaru from Bleach, or the eccentric Yoshimitsu from Tekken evoke the rebellious style of kabukimono, but do they truly capture their spirit? In games from the Yakuza series and Rurouni Kenshin, there are also characters inspired by their independence and defiance, though often filtered through a Western view of individualism. Today, we will take a closer look at the real kabukimono – without the pop culture masks and embellishments – to uncover who they truly were and what their unique lifestyle meant in the realities of ancient Japan.

A New Japan

At the end of the turbulent Sengoku period, Japan resembled a land after a great storm – the smoke of battles still hovered over the fields, the entire country was littered with corpses where bloody battles were fought, and the echoes of past clashes were seen in the ruins of villages and in the eyes of those who survived. A freshly united country was slowly becoming the arena of a new order. After Oda Nobunaga drowned the land in blood, and then Hideyoshi Toyotomi spilled the rest on the Korean Peninsula, Tokugawa Ieyasu, the great strategist and visionary, solidified his power, ushering in an era of peace. For many former warriors, however, this peaceful life was more torment than salvation.

We must understand that Japan had practically been in a state of permanent war for many generations. Entire families of samurai were born and died for one purpose only – to participate in this war, to kill enemies and defend their daimyō. If we take away war – what remains?

Samurai, who had spent their lives in the service of war, suddenly found themselves at a crossroads, lost and redundant in the new system. Among them were rōnin – former samurai without a lord, wandering alone, without purpose or obligations. Once proud, they were now marginalized in society. They looked at the new reality as a strange foreign land where their values ceased to matter. Without work, they lived in poverty and despair, searching for a way to survive, and their everyday lives increasingly strayed from the loyalty and honor they had upheld in wartime. It was then that a rebellion emerged, taking the form of kabukimono – extravagant, defiant warriors who rejected the old ethics in favor of a life full of unpredictability and bravado. It was a sigh for war in times of peace for those who knew only war. In peacetime, wild and unpredictable living gave them a taste of what they remembered from war – adrenaline, camaraderie, freedom, cruelty.

For kabukimono, the samurai code of honor (which would be named bushidō two hundred years later) was like a fragile, forgotten map of long-lost values. Though they carried katanas, their path did not lead to honor, but to personal expression and anarchy. What had once been the core of their identity – loyalty to a lord, readiness to sacrifice, respect for death – now transformed into loyalty to each other, but without strict rules. Unlike traditional samurai, kabukimono were rebels who, on the streets of Edo, appeared as living images of colors and sounds – symbols of freedom but also of danger, pulling everything in their uncertain whirlpool of chaos.

“Alternative Fashion” of 17th-Century Japan

Kabukimono, in their time, symbolized not only rebellion but also a deep need to express identity in a world that had rejected their war skills. Their appearance drastically differed from the modest, subdued clothes preferred by most of society. Contrary to typical male styles, they often chose colorful kimonos in intense colors, sometimes even women’s styles, which they wore unconventionally, sometimes as cloaks or capes. They often added elements like tight, short haori with hems weighted with lead, giving their attire a certain heaviness, making every step more pronounced and expressive.

The hairstyles of kabukimono were equally unusual. Instead of the traditional samurai topknot, kabukimono wore “experimental” hairstyles – both long hair and shaved parts of the head, which they combined into unexpected compositions, such as tategami (立髪 – lit. “standing hair” – a long, loose mane of hair standing upright), or styles inspired by tea accessories like chasen (茶筅 – a bamboo whisk for matcha), giving them an appearance straight out of theatrical performances. Completing their look were kiseru – long pipes often used not only for smoking but also as a symbol of defiance. In their hands, kiseru could become weapons or accessories that enhanced their presence.

The swords of kabukimono also deviated from samurai norms. They were often excessively long, with richly decorated tsuba (what is tsuba? – check here: Tsuba) and handles, sometimes colored in bright shades like red. Such a sword challenged standard samurai rules, and the mere act of carrying such decorated weapons was a blatant defiance of prevailing norms. The kabukimono style was thus a manifesto of resistance to authority and social conventions, an expression of a desire for freedom and a rejection of social roles that no longer held meaning for them. Every element of their appearance – from bold colors to exaggerated accessories – conveyed more than just aesthetics; it was a conscious choice that put them in opposition to the prevailing order.

Rowdies and Hooligans

Kabukimono, the rowdies and troublemakers of their time, sowed fear in the streets of Kyoto, Edo, and other Japanese cities. They sought opportunities to display their strength in unpredictable, brutal ways. One of their most shocking practices was tsuji-giri, or attacking random passersby just to test the blade of a new sword. Tsuji-giri was not motivated by bloodlust or revenge – it was a cold, dangerous ritual that symbolized their defiance against society and departure from moral principles.

Kabukimono would often enter restaurants or tea houses, eat and drink to their heart’s content, and then leave without paying. Many establishment owners did not even demand payment – they knew too well that kabukimono would respond with disdain, threats, or violence. Robbery, looting, and assaults were part of their daily life, resembling a desperate attempt to forge a new identity in times that had no place for them. They were anarchists in a strictly hierarchical system.

However, despite this apparent brutality and lack of rules, kabukimono upheld one value – loyalty to their own. Unlike the traditional samurai code, which demanded unwavering loyalty to a lord, kabukimono created their own code of loyalty, directed solely at members of their group. Even under threat of torture, they did not betray their comrades. An example of this steadfast loyalty is Ichibei Ōtori – a renowned leader of the kabukimono, captured by authorities in 1612. When subjected to brutal interrogations, he did not reveal any names of his companions. Instead, to the consternation of his captors, he wrote down the names of daimyō from across the country, mocking the system that tried to break him. On the blade of his sword, he inscribed the words “Life is too long for someone who has lived twenty-five years” – an expression of his belief that honor lay in loyalty, not in submission.

Thus, kabukimono were not merely troublemakers; they were people who created their own code against the entire society. Their loyalty and disdain for authorities were a form of silent protest against a system that had cast them aside. In their brutal actions, there echoed both desperation and determination to survive on their own terms, even if it meant life outside the law and society.

The Conflict with Machi Yakko and the Rise of the Yakuza

In the cities of the Edo period, where kabukimono spread chaos, society did not remain indifferent. A group called Machi Yakko – “servants of the town” (町奴) – emerged to counter the brutality of these troublemakers, banding together to protect residents from kabukimono violence. The Machi Yakko were a mix of artisans, shopkeepers, clerks, as well as the unemployed and drifters, who united out of a need to ensure safety for themselves and their loved ones. For the common people, they were silent heroes who dared to confront bandits that the official guards would not touch. They quickly gained fame as “noble defenders of the people,” although their methods and motives were often far more complicated than the romantic legends that later surrounded them.

In stories, Machi Yakko were portrayed almost like Japanese Robin Hoods, but the reality was more complex. Many of them also engaged in illegal activities, including gambling, extortion, and collecting “protection” fees. Although they were opponents of the kabukimono, their structures soon began to resemble gangs, and their hierarchy, based on loyalty, support, and internal obligations, laid the foundation for the culture of the yakuza that followed. Over time, the group became known as the yakuza (for more on its origins, see here: Yakuza Beginnings and its history here: End of Yakuza).

Kabukimono and Machi Yakko formed two contrasting camps, yet their mutual struggle and coexistence laid the groundwork for Japan’s later organized crime culture. Kabukimono – anarchists without rules or respect for authority – became the antithesis of the organized and loyalty-based hierarchy embodied by Machi Yakko. The latter group, although less colorful, was more effective in organization. Its members inspired later generations of yakuza, who also took on the role of “protecting” their communities, albeit at a high price.

It’s essential to remember that both kabukimono and Machi Yakko were not straightforward heroes or villains. Their actions, though seemingly opposed, were reactions to changing times and social transformations that pushed individuals to the brink of survival. While the romance and legend around Machi Yakko endured, their methods and principles diverged from the noble vision of defenders of the people; they were infused with violence, a struggle for power, and mutual exploitation. The yakuza, modeling itself on their group loyalty and solidarity, also adopted their darker sides, creating a criminal empire that still echoes the old conflict between kabukimono and Machi Yakko.

Kabukimono vs. the Shogunate

The Tokugawa authorities viewed kabukimono with growing disdain and apprehension. The new shogunate, which had just ended an era of chaos, sought stability, order, and social harmony. Kabukimono – rebellious, flamboyant samurai without masters – posed a threat to this new order. The turning point came in 1612 when the shogunate issued its first decree against the “mad samurai.” A broad campaign began to capture and neutralize these troublemakers and enforce strict social rules that would henceforth govern the lives of former warriors.

The decrees not only imposed clothing restrictions but also limited the right to bear arms, especially among those who openly challenged authority, parading with long katanas and ornate kiseru. Aware of the power of symbols, the shogunate ordered the confiscation of excessively long swords and banned the wearing of bright kimonos, which had become a hallmark of the kabukimono. In the cities of Edo and Kyoto, where kabukimono were most visible, city guards organized regular raids, apprehending those who dared to defy the imposed rules.

In 1615, the shogunate undertook mass executions. In Kanazawa and Takaoka, dozens of kabukimono were captured and executed, including group leaders who had previously resisted. Society watched this display of force – brutal but effective – which served as a reminder to all of the unyielding resolve of the new authorities. Kabukimono, who had paraded the streets with confidence, now disappeared from public view, their remnants fading into the shadows of history. Further decrees, such as those from 1617 and 1632, restricted the former samurai even more, introducing strict rules regarding their clothing, hairstyles, and public behavior. The symbolic eradication of kabukimono was a signal that in the new Japan, there was no room for eccentricity or defiance.

Over time, the legacy of kabukimono passed into the structures of semi-legal groups and criminal organizations that began to operate on the fringes of society. Some young craftsmen and small traders, inspired by their style and attitude, adopted elements of their culture, forming the early seeds of later groups like the yakuza. Kabukimono thus became a symbol of hidden rebellion against the rigid Tokugawa structures – their flamboyance and love for freedom endured as silent protest, expressed in the defiant attitudes of future generations. The shogunate may have suppressed kabukimono, but their rebellious spirit, capable of defying the system, remained forever imprinted in Japanese culture.

Kabukimono in Culture

Kabukimono had a significant impact on Japanese culture, and their rebellious spirit found expression primarily in kabuki theater. Izumo no Okuni, often considered the creator of this uniquely Japanese theatrical art form, was inspired by the kabukimono style, especially their clothing and free-spirited approach to social norms. In the 17th century, performing on the streets of Kyoto, Okuni introduced elements of parody, rebellious dance, and colorful costumes into her performances, which quickly became popular and gave rise to a new art form. Kabuki, inspired by kabukimono style, soon gained attention and recognition, transforming into Japan’s national theater, which to this day stands as a living testament to their legacy.

In folk tales, kabukimono often appeared as morally ambiguous figures – rebels and hooligans, but sometimes also silent heroes. An example is the legendary Ude no Kisaburo, a character who cut off his own arm as an act of penance and later fought criminals to protect residents. Kisaburo’s story became the basis for numerous kabuki performances and is still remembered today as an example of resilience and inner strength. Another well-known character is Banzuiin Chōbei, who fought against samurai bandits and became a hero in theatrical dramas and folk tales as an otokodate, or “noble protector”.

Contemporary Japanese culture and pop culture draw on the motif of kabukimono as a prototype of the rebel and outsider. Characters in anime, such as Gin Ichimaru in Bleach or Kyojuro Rengoku in Demon Slayer, wear extravagant clothing and display unconventional behaviors, reminiscent of the kabukimono style. In the Yakuza series by Toshihiro Nagoshi, we find characters who, though engaged in crime, adhere to a specific loyalty and code derived from both the Machi Yakko and kabukimono traditions. Even Yoshimitsu, a character from the Tekken and Soulcalibur games, with his grotesque style and unconventional behavior, reflects the spirit of kabukimono, balancing between crime and samurai values.

In pop culture, kabukimono have transformed into symbols of individualism and the fight against imposed norms. Drawing from their defiant style and anarchistic attitude, today’s characters inspired by kabukimono embody ideas of rebellion and the pursuit of freedom, which is recognizable and appealing especially in the West. Thanks to kabukimono, Japan becomes a bit more understandable to a European audience. However, let’s ensure that this doesn’t come at the cost of understanding more distant concepts, like samurai culture or mono no aware.

Evaluation

Kabukimono remain a phenomenon full of paradoxes that provoke reflection on their place in history. On one hand, they can be seen as a breath of rebellion and individualism in a highly hierarchical, feudal society that demanded strict obedience to authority and designated roles. Kabukimono were willing to defy conventions, manifesting their distinctiveness through style, defiance, and an extreme way of being. Their existence seems to confirm that even within the most rigid social structures, there is a desire for freedom and a need to express oneself beyond imposed boundaries.

On the other hand, their violence and often brutal behavior are difficult to justify or romanticize. Tsuji-giri, or brutal attacks on random passersby to test a sword’s sharpness, was an example of extreme and barbaric cruelty and thoughtlessness. Kabukimono, taking advantage of a moment of freedom, not only broke rules but also committed acts that, from a modern perspective (and let’s not deceive ourselves, from the victim’s perspective in any era) are unacceptable. For many, their stance was not so much a display of courage as it was thoughtless anarchy, which cannot be considered worthy of emulation. Thus, we see kabukimono as figures of dual nature – inspiring but also terrifying in their brutality.

How to ultimately judge them is up to the reader. These colorful figures from the early Edo period are simultaneously a testament to the need for rebellion and pioneers of individualism in Japanese society, but also an example of unchecked violence. The legacy of kabukimono endures in pop culture as a symbol of eccentricity and defiance – their image lives on in characters who oppose the system, though they are not always entirely positive. Perhaps it is precisely this duality that makes them fascinating: heroes and criminals who, nonetheless, left a lasting mark on Japan’s history.

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 A connoisseur of Asian culture with a deep-seated appreciation for various philosophies of the world. By education, psychologist and Korean philologist. By heart, an Android developer and an ardent tech aficionado. In tranquil moments, he champions a disciplined way of life, firmly believing that steadfastness, perpetual self-enhancement, and a dedication to one's passions is a sensible path for life.

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