“Ubae, korose!”

Amidst the mists and turbulent waves of the Sea of Japan (East Sea), they appeared – the wakou, pirates who for centuries instilled fear along the coasts of Asia. Their ships resembled swift, ominous apparitions, carried by the wind towards Chinese, Korean, and Japanese villages, ready to strike with sudden fury. At the moment they shouted their battle cries “Tatakau!” (attack!) and “Ubae, korose!” the hearts of the inhabitants knew only one instinct – to flee. Confusion, chaos, fire on the shore, and the shouts of joy from those who lived by the rule: “The law of the sea is lawlessness and freedom!” The wakou pirates were ruthless bandits, but they were also symbols and genuine embodiments of freedom and life beyond the enslaving norms of the feudal society. Norms that, in the times of samurai Japan, regulated human behavior at every level. But not for the wakou.

Wakou were more than pirates from legends – they were people without a homeland, “marginal people” (as historian Shōsuke Murai called them), who navigated between borders, coming from different cultures and nations. A truly cosmopolitan group. In the 14th century, they raided the Korean coasts with fleets numbering hundreds of ships, and each attack brought not only riches but also epic tales that have survived for centuries. They were feared, so the authorities responded with equal ruthlessness. In Korea, records tell of a battle where several wakou were captured and transported to China to be boiled alive in a large cauldron, publicly. Yet despite these brutal attempts to suppress piracy, the wakou always returned – stronger and more determined. Masters of adaptation. And trade. And innovation. Sometimes, it seems appropriate to treat them as a separate nation.

Their impact on East Asian history is undeniable, and their legends still live. Just as the sound of bells stolen from Korean monasteries can still be heard, found in Japanese temples and museums to this day. You already know how they got there! Welcome to an article about wild freedom, but also ruthless criminality on the waters of feudal Japan, Korea, and China. “Tatakau!”

The name “wakou” tells us little about who the pirates were

The etymology of the term wakou (倭寇) hides ancient insults, fears, stories of terror, but also the promise of freedom. The word wakou is a compound of two characters – 倭 (wa), which in classical Chinese meant “dwarves” and was a derogatory term for the Japanese, and 寇 (kou), meaning “bandit” or “pirate.” This combination of characters gave the pirates the status of enemies not only political but also cultural – outsiders who crossed borders and threatened the civilized world of the Chinese dynasty or the Korean kingdom.

The first documented use of this term is found on the Gwanggaeto Stele (광개토대왕비), erected in 414 to honor the Korean King Gwanggaeto the Great of Goguryeo. It was here that the term “wakou” (倭寇) was first recorded in reference to Japanese invaders who launched an attack on the Korean coasts. The stele mentions “Japanese robbers” defeated by the king, indicating that already in the 5th century, the term had a pejorative connotation and referred to brutal attacks from outsiders.

However, the ethnic origin of these pirates is much more complex than it might seem at first glance. Research conducted in the 20th century, including by Professor Takeo Tanaka of Tokyo University, suggests that some early wakou may have been of Korean, not Japanese, origin. In the Annals of the Joseon Dynasty (조선왕조실록), there is an account by a vassal of King Sejong, Yi Sun-mong, who claimed that only 1 in 10 pirates at that time was actually from Japan. According to his testimony, the rest were Korean peasants disguised as Japanese, spreading chaos along the coasts, further blurring the lines between true Japanese invaders and local rebels.

The term wakou was not the only one referring to maritime bandits. In Japan, a more local term for pirates was kaizoku (海賊), which literally translates as “sea thieves.” Kaizoku operated primarily within Japan’s borders, attacking local rice shipments and merchant boats. Although both terms – wakou and kaizoku – referred to pirates, the former had a broader international context and operated across the seas between Japan, Korea, and China.

It is worth noting that wakou, like kaizoku, were not an organized group with a uniform ethnic background or goals. They were pirates from various cultures and regions, living on the fringes of societies, having no fixed loyalties, which made them even more unpredictable and dangerous.

The history of wakou

Early period (4th–15th centuries)

Among the misty sea routes of East Asia, the pirates known as wakou (倭寇) first etched their names into history as early as the 4th century. They were people whose home was the sea, and their goal – to plunder the coasts of Korea, China, and Japan. They had no loyalties to rulers or the powerful, nor to any specific state or nation, nor even to each other. Constantly on the move, ready to strike, they posed a threat to both local communities and entire kingdoms.

In the 14th and 15th centuries, wakou raids reached their peak. The hungry flotillas of hundreds of ships, commanded by an international mix of Japanese, Koreans, and Chinese (and often other nationalities), roamed the seas, attacking everything in their path. The coasts of Korea and China suffered the most during this time. In Korea alone, from 1350 to 1370, there were almost yearly brutal attacks in which pirates plundered villages, kidnapped people, and stole grain essential for entire regions to survive. Their activities were not limited to looting – wakou often incorporated captives into their crews, and the grain sometimes financed the wars of local feudal lords in Japan.

Political chaos in Japan, especially during the wars between local clans such as the Ouchi and Taira, further intensified pirate activity. The imperial authorities had little control over the distant islands of Kyushu, Iki, and Tsushima, which became the main pirate bases. On these islands, particularly Tsushima, wakou found refuge from the pursuit of Korean and Chinese fleets. One of the most important moments in the fight against wakou occurred in 1419 when Korean General Yi Jongmu launched an expedition to Tsushima, known as the Ōei Invasion. Over 17,000 Korean soldiers attacked the island, destroying pirate bases and freeing hundreds of Korean and Chinese slaves. Despite this, they were unable to completely eradicate wakou activity, who merely relocated to other areas.

Late period (16th century)

As time passed, the face of the wakou began to change. In the 16th century, the Chinese took dominance in their ranks, with fewer Japanese and Koreans involved. In fact, according to Chinese Ming-era sources, only 30% of pirates during this period were Japanese. The rest were Chinese, often rebelling against the strict trade restrictions imposed by the Ming dynasty. Trade bans caused many Chinese merchants to turn to piracy, seeing it as the only way to maintain their businesses.

At the head of these “new” wakou were charismatic leaders like Wang Zhi, who in the mid-16th century dominated pirate activity on Japan’s Kyushu islands. Wang Zhi, a Chinese merchant-pirate, not only organized raiding expeditions but also established close ties with local daimyo in Japan, enabling him to trade goods that would otherwise have been inaccessible due to government bans. He collaborated with Japanese samurai, trading weapons and goods while organizing pirate fleets. His base on the island of Hirado was known for its regular contacts with Chinese and Japanese elites, making him one of the most powerful “merchant-pirates” of the time.

However, dark days for the wakou came with the unification of Japan by Toyotomi Hideyoshi in the late 16th century. Hideyoshi, seeking to strengthen central authority and end the feudal chaos, turned his forces against the pirates. Ultimately, Hideyoshi’s efforts, supported by his unified fleet, led to the destruction of wakou as a force on the waters of East Asia. With Japan’s unification, the pirates lost their bases, and the trade system was regulated, putting an end to their activities.

The wakou, who for centuries had been the terror of the seas, were finally defeated – but their legend, somewhat romantic due to the call of freedom, yet primarily bloody and filled with ruthlessness and cruelty, survives to this day.

How did they organize?

The wakou, pirates who plundered the coasts of East Asia for centuries, were not just a chaotic rabble of bandits – they had their bases and developed organizational structures that ensured their survival and effectiveness. Their main bases were located on the islands of Tsushima, Iki, and Hirado, as well as in the southern part of Kyushu. Tsushima was particularly important due to its strategic location – it lay exactly between Japan and the Korean Peninsula, making it an ideal launching point for attacks on both countries. Hirado, on the other hand, located in northern Kyushu, served not only as a pirate base but also as a trade center where pirates could exchange their loot for other goods.

Wakou fleets consisted of small but extremely maneuverable ships that could move quickly through rough waters. These flotillas varied in size – from a few to hundreds of vessels – and their crews numbered from dozens to hundreds of pirates. The hierarchy within these groups was clearly established: at the top were the leaders, usually experienced commanders who had direct contacts with local rulers. Each crew operated independently, but there were also alliances between different pirate groups, especially during larger raids.

What Did Wakou Pirates Sail On?

A ship, of course, is the most important piece of equipment for a pirate, one could say the fundamental tool of their trade. Pirate vessels were usually small, maneuverable, and adapted for navigation in shallow coastal waters.

The most characteristic types of ships used by the wakou were:

Kobaya (小早)

Literally translated as "small fast boat." Kobaya were small vessels that could be propelled by both oars and sails. Their construction allowed for high speeds, which was crucial during quick raids and escapes from enemy forces. With their shallow draft, they could easily move along the coasts and enter shallow bays or rivers.

Sekibune (関船)

Slightly larger than kobaya, sekibune were flat-bottomed ships, which allowed them to navigate shallow coastal waters. Equipped with oars and sails, they could carry more crew and weaponry. They were used both for transporting pirates and for naval combat.

Sōsen (早船)

Known as "fast boats," these were vessels designed with speed and mobility in mind. Sōsen were ideal for conducting sudden attacks and quickly retreating before an enemy counterattack.

It is worth noting that the design of these ships was tailored to the wakou’s tactics, which relied on surprise and speed. Thanks to the small size and lightness of their ships, the pirates could easily hide along the coasts, using small ports and natural coves as launch points for raids.

Chinese and Korean sources from that period often described wakou ships as "small and fast," emphasizing their ability to launch lightning attacks on unsuspecting coastal inhabitants. Their ships were also light enough to be easily carried or dragged through shallows, giving them an advantage over the larger warships of their opponents.

If we were to choose one ship to symbolize the life of a pirate, it would have to be the kobaya – the most commonly used ship by the wakou, symbolizing their way of life – fast, elusive, and always ready for the next raid.

Born Traders

The life of the wakou was based on constant plundering. The most common spoils were grain, which was the basic medium of trade, and slaves – people abducted from villages along the coasts of Korea and China. Slaves were an important part of the pirate economy, serving both as labor on ships and in pirate settlements on Japanese islands. Many of them remained permanently in Japan, affecting the region's demographics, especially on islands such as Kyushu.

The wakou often targeted religious artifacts and ceramics. History is full of examples of raids on Korea, where pirates looted large numbers of Buddhist statues, temple bells, and sutras, which later ended up in temples in Japan. Celadons – valuable, green-glazed ceramic vessels, particularly popular in China and Korea – were also frequent spoils. These artifacts were of immense value, and the pirates sold them on the black market or traded them with local rulers, who were eager to acquire luxury goods.

Illegal trade became an integral part of the wakou’s activities. In Kyushu, where local rulers often couldn’t stop the piracy, pirates forged alliances with daimyo and other regional leaders. In exchange for protection or access to safe ports, the wakou shared their spoils, leading to a kind of mutual dependency. On one hand, the pirates plundered the coasts, while on the other, they legitimized their spoils through trade with the local elites.

Pirates as a Community

Wakou pirate groups were not just loose bands of robbers but also developed communities. In their settlements, especially on Tsushima and Hirado, not only pirates lived but also their families, allies, and slaves. Slaves played a key role in building the strength of these communities. Many of them stayed in Japan permanently, contributing to the population growth in the isolated regions of the islands. Some slaves, especially those with specialized skills – such as blacksmiths or carpenters – could eventually gain relative independence and become part of Japanese society.

The hierarchy within pirate groups was strict, and leaders, known as "kaizoku-danna" (海賊旦那), held absolute power. The commanders of these groups were often connected to local feudal lords, and their relationships with rulers were crucial to the survival of the pirate fleets. For example, Imagawa Sadayo, a powerful military ruler from Kyushu, was known for suppressing pirate activity but also for using them for his own purposes. Such relationships were common – pirates and rulers used each other, creating a complex network of dependencies.

Military Know-How

In the early period of their activities, the wakou were known for their brutality and frequent attacks, but they lacked advanced military technology. They particularly felt the absence of gunpowder, which was possessed by Chinese and Korean armies. This deficiency made it difficult for them to effectively resist regular armies, as seen in battles with Korean forces in 1380.

However, in the 16th century, the situation began to change. The wakou established contacts with the Portuguese, who introduced modern firearms to Japan, including cannons and arquebuses. The pirates began using these new military technologies in their attacks, giving them an advantage over their opponents, especially the Chinese forces, who were not yet fully adapted to fighting against such weaponry. Wang Zhi, the famous Chinese wakou leader, was one of those who fully utilized this new technology, creating a true maritime power in East Asia.

The life of the wakou pirates was full of risks and dangers but also of freedom and limitless opportunities. The foundation of their culture, though brutal, was independence from the law, and their way of life reflected a worldview that valued strength, health, cunning, and independence.

Wakou in History

The Figure of Wang Zhi

Wang Zhi, a Chinese merchant who went from being a model citizen to a powerful pirate, is one of the most colorful figures in wakou history. He operated in the 16th century, during a time when piracy was undergoing a transformation – with Chinese playing an increasingly significant role, dissatisfied with the restrictive trade policies of the Ming dynasty.

Operating from bases in Japan, such as Hirado and the Gotō Islands, Wang Zhi built a network of pirates and merchants that connected China, Japan, and even Portuguese traders. His fleets were well-armed with European weapons, making him one of the most influential pirates of his time.

Wang Zhi not only plundered but also engaged in legal trade, which allowed him to strengthen his position. Ultimately, he was captured by Chinese authorities and executed in 1560, but his activities had a lasting impact on the development of piracy and trade in the region.

The Figure of Matsura Takanobu

Matsura Takanobu (松浦隆信) was one of the most well-known Japanese pirate leaders who operated in the 16th century. He came from the Matsura clan, which had long maintained strong control over northern Kyushu, including the islands of Iki and Hirado, which were key bases for wakou pirates. Takanobu, although officially a daimyo (feudal lord), for a long time engaged in illegal piracy and trade, earning revenue from both raids and cooperation with international merchants, including the Portuguese.

Takanobu skillfully combined his pirate activities with politics – becoming a mediator between foreign merchants and Japan. His pirate forces were powerful and well-organized, allowing him to seize ships in the East China Sea. Matsura Takanobu gained influence not only through raids but also through strategic alliances with Portuguese missionaries and traders, bringing significant profits to his clan. At the end of his life, Takanobu gave up piracy and converted to Christianity, taking the baptismal name Dom Bartolomeu.

The Figure of Murakami Takeyoshi

Murakami Takeyoshi (村上武吉) was another prominent Japanese pirate leader who gained fame in the 16th century. His family, the Murakami clan, was one of the most famous pirate clans on the Seto Inland Sea. Murakami Takeyoshi, along with his brothers, commanded a strong fleet that controlled maritime traffic on this strategically important trade route. He was often regarded as the “lord of the sea,” collecting fees from passing ships in exchange for protection – a sort of pirate “tax” that allowed the clan to maintain a powerful fleet and influence.

Takeyoshi and his men were masters of naval warfare. Their fast and maneuverable ships allowed them to attack larger enemy vessels, and their knowledge of the currents and tides of the Inland Sea gave them an advantage over any opponent. Murakami Takeyoshi was known for his deep understanding of naval tactics and was often hired by powerful feudal lords, such as Mōri Motonari, to defend their territories.

However, with the rise of Toyotomi Hideyoshi and his policy of unifying Japan, the activities of Murakami and his brothers were curtailed. Over time, Takeyoshi was forced to abandon piracy and transform his fleet into more official naval forces, serving the political interests of the rulers. Despite this, his legend as a pirate master of naval warfare endured, and the Murakami clan is still remembered as one of the most famous pirate families in Japan.

Conclusion

The history of the wakou is not just a story of piracy and violence, but also one of complex social, political, and economic dependencies. The wakou were not a homogeneous group – among them were people of various nationalities and classes, from simple fishermen to high-ranking merchants and warriors. Moreover, their actions at sea reflected larger political and economic issues in East Asia, such as the isolationist policies of the Ming dynasty or the internal feudal conflicts in Japan. Their existence for several centuries speaks to the strength of independent maritime forces in the region and the importance of international trade, even under conditions of restrictions and prohibitions.

What sets the wakou apart is their unique ability to survive against all odds. Despite numerous military campaigns launched against them – such as the expedition to Tsushima or the actions of the rulers of Japan, China, and Korea – the wakou always managed to adapt to changing conditions. Their fleets evolved, their weaponry modernized, and their trade networks became increasingly complex. They were masters of adaptation, and their influence extended not only over the waters of Asia but also into its markets and the politics of local rulers.

Although the wakou were eventually suppressed by the centralizing authorities of Japan and China, their legend endures to this day. They serve as evidence of how complex and dynamic the relations between the land and sea worlds were in medieval East Asia. In many places, from temples in Kyushu to the archives of Chinese dynasties, traces of their legacy can still be found – a silent reminder of a time when the seas were both a source of freedom and terror.

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 A connoisseur of Asian culture with a deep-seated appreciation for various philosophies of the world. By education, psychologist and Korean philologist. By heart, an Android developer and an ardent tech aficionado. In tranquil moments, he champions a disciplined way of life, firmly believing that steadfastness, perpetual self-enhancement, and a dedication to one's passions is a sensible path for life.

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