How Did Japan Become the Land of the Samurai? – The Pirate King Fujiwara no Sumitomo’s Rebellion at the End of the Heian Era
Times of Change
The classical Heian period was a Japan of aristocratic etiquette, courtly intrigues, and poetry written on silk. Yet beneath this delicate, refined world of art and verse, a new and vastly different Japan was being born—a world of warriors who would forever reshape the nation. While days-long ceremonial feasts and poetic contests dominated the capital, in the impoverished provinces, resentment toward inequality was simmering. On the restless waters of the Seto Inland Sea, young Fujiwara no Sumitomo, an aristocrat from a marginal branch of a noble family, achieved the impossible—he abandoned the splendor of the court to become a pirate king, a rebel, and united people of various backgrounds to fight for a new Japan.
Sent on a mission to suppress piracy, Sumitomo soon commandeered the pirate fleets and built an armada of over a thousand ships, with his base on Heburi Island. Rather than pursuing outlaws, he united them, creating a force capable of threatening the capital of Heian-kyo. In a world where loyalty to the emperor was absolute, Sumitomo dared to side with the excluded—peasants burdened by taxes, outcasts, and unpaid warriors of lower noble ranks. Amidst the sea mist, the rhythmic splash of oars, and the glow of burning coastal villages, Sumitomo became the terror of the imperial navy and the symbol of the anger of those the court had forsaken.
The story of Fujiwara no Sumitomo is not merely one of a pirate and a rebel. It is the tale of a Japan at a crossroads, where the old aristocratic order gradually gave way to a new era—the age of the samurai, where loyalty, the sword, and martial skill would become the new pillars of society. Sumitomo, standing between two worlds—those of the warriors and the aristocracy—was ahead of his time, helping to lay the foundations of a radically new Japan. Let us explore the final years of aristocratic Japan on the eve of the birth of the samurai world.
Sumitomo’s Youth
Fujiwara no Sumitomo (藤原純友) was born in an era when Japan stood on the brink of transformation. He belonged to the powerful Fujiwara clan, whose influence over the imperial court during the Heian period was unmatched. Through political acumen and strategic marriages, the Fujiwaras controlled nearly every decision made in the capital. Yet young Sumitomo, though an aristocrat by blood, did not have the opportunity to fully experience the privileges of courtly life. His father, Fujiwara no Yoshinori, died early, leaving the family without a strong protector. In a world where lineage and, especially, a father’s position meant everything, Sumitomo could not expect a life of comfort or honors.
He grew up in the shadow of his clan’s greatness, feeling the bitterness of exclusion. While his cousins ascended to high positions in the capital, Sumitomo had to reconcile himself to being an outsider in the court’s hierarchy. The Heian imperial court was a place of intrigues, ceremonial feasts, and seemingly endless poetry contests. Though Sumitomo was intelligent and ambitious, he lacked the support necessary to climb the complex social ladder. His frustration grew, and life in the capital felt like a cage that stifled his every breath.
Sumitomo’s fate changed in 932 when his stepfather, Fujiwara no Motona, was appointed governor of Iyo Province. Despite his aversion to provincial life, Sumitomo was given the position of Iyo-no-kuni no jo—assistant to the governor. Iyo Province, located along the Seto Inland Sea, was a world entirely unlike the capital. In contrast to the court, where silk, gold, and poetry dominated every aspect of life, Iyo smelled of sea salt, and its inhabitants were hardened by their daily struggle against nature. Pirates frequently raided coastal settlements, and local communities teetered on the brink of survival. For Sumitomo, it was a shock—Iyo’s harshness was a stark contrast to Heian-kyo’s refinement. Yet something about the chaos began to fascinate him.
His task was to suppress piracy, which had become a true scourge of the region. The Seto Inland Sea was then a battleground for constant skirmishes—pirates, organized in groups, not only looted merchants but often seized control of local villages. Sumitomo, a young aristocrat with a courtly education, had to quickly learn a new way of life. His successes in combating the pirates—both through force and diplomacy—earned him respect in the region. He was sharp, composed, and extraordinarily charismatic, which allowed him to win over even the most hardened warriors.
Yet deep down, Sumitomo felt growing frustration. Although he was successful, the imperial court ignored his achievements. Rewards went to those who remained in the capital, not to those who dirtied their hands in the field. This sense of injustice and isolation began to change his perspective on the world. Was it worth being loyal to a system that discarded its own heroes? Living between two worlds—those of the aristocracy and the warriors—Sumitomo began to see that provincial life, though brutal, offered a freedom the court could never provide.
On Heburi Island, where he established his base, Sumitomo began to realize new ambitions. His destiny was no longer to climb the ladder of courtly hierarchy. He started looking out over the waters of the Seto Inland Sea, imagining an entirely new order. A world where not lineage but strength and cunning determined a person’s place. A world he would soon create himself.
The Transformation into a Pirate King
The Birth of a Rebel
Fujiwara no Sumitomo stood on the shore of Heburi Island, gazing out over the vast waters of the Seto Inland Sea. The wind tousled his hair, and his eyes pierced the misty horizon where sea and sky met. His heart burned with anger—anger at the imperial court, which had ignored his accomplishments, and at an unjust world where lineage mattered more than deeds. He had grown tired of being a tool in the hands of others. If no one would recognize him, he would at least make the world witness his strength.
Sumitomo’s transformation into a rebel was a slow but inevitable process. His successes in suppressing piracy had been entirely ignored by the capital—no commendations, no rewards. Instead, honors went to those who never set foot outside Heian-kyo’s walls. Sumitomo, spending day after day among the people of the provinces, began to see a different truth—the pirates, peasants, and warriors he encountered were not merely bandits or rebels. They were victims of a system that too often served the few who knew little of life beyond the court. Perhaps, he thought, that system was unworthy of loyalty.
The decision to switch sides did not come easily. For many nights, Sumitomo stared at the stars from his modest shelter, pondering the consequences. To abandon the Fujiwara name and become an outcast? Or perhaps this was his true destiny all along?
Heburi – The Island of Rebellion
Heburi Island (日振), strategically located in the Seto Inland Sea, rose like a fortress from the waves. It was here that Sumitomo relocated his operations. The island was surrounded by steep cliffs, making it nearly impregnable. Hidden in rocky coves were ships—hundreds of vessels that would eventually grow into a mighty fleet of over a thousand ships. Heburi became the heart of a new power that would shift the balance of authority in the region.
For Sumitomo, Heburi was more than just a base of operations. It became a symbol of his rebellion, a place where distinctions between aristocrats and peasants vanished, where courage, loyalty, and survival skills were the only measures of worth. People came here from all over the region—outcasts, peasants ruined by taxes, and even warriors deprived of a future by the imperial court. Sumitomo had a keen eye for recognizing potential and utilized their talents for a shared cause.
The island buzzed with life. By day, the hammering of carpenters echoed as they repaired ships and built new ones. By night, the fireside was alive with song, and tales of Sumitomo began to grow into legend. It was said he could read his enemies' minds, was invincible in swordsmanship, and that his ambitions stretched all the way to Heian-kyo itself.
Alliances and Expansion
Sumitomo understood that the key to success was not only strength but loyalty. Instead of ruling with an iron fist, he won people over. He knew his fleet and army were a complex mosaic of interests—peasants seeking vengeance against local authorities, warriors who had lost hope of serving in the imperial army, and even merchants who saw opportunities for profit in his actions.
The alliances he forged were both strategic and emotional. Sumitomo realized his greatest asset was his ability to listen and empathize with his people’s needs. In exchange for loyalty, he offered protection and the chance for a better life. When peasants saw that under his rule they no longer had to pay draconian taxes, and warriors found a place where their skills were valued, his power grew in ways that even the imperial court could not ignore.
His influence began to extend beyond Heburi. Sumitomo’s ships patrolled the waters of the Seto Inland Sea, controlling trade and imposing his will on provinces like Bizen, Sanuki, and Harima. It was a world Sumitomo built from scratch—a world where people could find their place, even when the old order had no future for them.
The Pirate Life
Daily life on Heburi was a blend of chaos and order. Sumitomo organized his army with military precision—every crew member had a task, from navigators to warriors guarding the base. The island operated under strict rules—loyalty was absolute, and betrayal was punishable by death. Yet, there was also room for celebration. Every victory—every battle won or ship seized—was an occasion for revelry.
Sumitomo personally oversaw everything. Walking through the island, he spoke with people, inspired them, and ensured morale remained high. He knew his strength lay in the people who believed in his vision. Perhaps the imperial court saw him as a rebel and a pirate, but for those who lived on Heburi, he was a savior and a leader.
Pirate life was harsh, but it was full of passion. As Sumitomo gazed upon his growing fleet, he knew his time was approaching. Heburi became not only his home but also a flashpoint that would alter the course of Japan’s history.
Rising Against the Aristocracy
The Causes of Rebellion
Fujiwara no Sumitomo stood on the deck of his flagship, watching the sun sink into the waves of the Seto Sea. His thoughts wandered to the imperial court in Heian-kyo, distant and almost unreal. For years, his achievements—eradicating rogue pirates, uniting local forces, building a fleet—had been ignored by the aristocrats.
Sumitomo’s frustration was not unique. Heian-era Japan was divided into two worlds. The first was the aristocracy—a world of luxury, where politics was a game of manipulation and wealth flowed from taxes imposed on the provinces. The second was the world of the provinces—peasants struggling with famine, poorly or unpaid warriors, and local minor officials overwhelmed by their duties. Standing between these two realities, Sumitomo realized that the system he had faithfully served was not only unjust but also broken.
In 939, under the shadow of Taira no Masakado’s rebellion in the east (read more about it here: Ancient warrior, false emperor, vengeful onryō demon – Why does Taira no Masakado's grave stand in the very center of Tokyo?), Sumitomo decided to act. After years of loyalty to the court that brought him only disappointment, he chose to challenge the aristocracy. He knew his actions would be branded as treason, but to him, it was more than that—it was a fight for justice, recognition, and change. And it was a battle to ensure his name would be remembered by history.
The First Attacks
Sumitomo’s first move was bold and brutal. In December 939, he ordered his subordinate, Fujiwara no Fumimoto, to attack two provincial governors—Fujiwara no Sanetaka of Bizen and Shimada Koremoto of Harima. These governors had long been known for their cruelty toward local populations and their actions against pirates. Sumitomo had no intention of showing mercy. Fumimoto intercepted them near the town of Sukieki (in Settsu Province), brutally mutilated them by cutting off their noses and ears, and killed their children. It was a clear message—Sumitomo would not be ignored.
News of the attack spread rapidly, sparking panic in the capital. The imperial court, which had previously dismissed Sumitomo, now saw him in vivid and threatening colors. His actions were not merely acts of vengeance—they marked the beginning of open rebellion.
The Court’s Response
In Heian-kyo, the simultaneous rebellions of Taira no Masakado in the east and Sumitomo in the west caused an earthquake of fear. Aristocrats whispered about possible collaboration between the rebels. “Do they plan to divide the country?” they asked in panic. Rumors claimed that Masakado, standing atop Mount Hiei, gazed upon the capital, dreaming of establishing his own empire in the east (he had even proclaimed himself the new emperor, to everyone’s horror!), while Sumitomo was said to be preparing to rule the west. Although there is no evidence that the two leaders ever met, their concurrent actions sowed chaos and dread.
The imperial court decided to act. Leading the troops sent against Sumitomo was Ono no Yoshifuru, supported by experienced commanders such as Minamoto no Tsunemoto and Fujiwara no Yoshiyuki. Their mission was to crush the rebellion at all costs.
A Shadow Over Heian-kyo
The greatest blow to the court was realizing that Sumitomo was closer to the capital than they had anticipated. His fleet not only dominated the Seto Inland Sea but was poised to strike directly at Heian-kyo. In early 940, Yoshifuru received a report: “Sumitomo’s ships are heading toward Heian-kyo.” These words sparked panic. The imperial court immediately reinforced the defenses of the capital’s 14 gates, creating a special garrison at Yamazaki on the southern approach.
Yet Sumitomo was a master of strategy and diversion. In February 940, a mysterious fire destroyed the garrison at Yamazaki, enabling his spies to infiltrate the capital. Riots and acts of sabotage began to plague the court. Reports of his fleet, capable of attacking at any moment, left the capital in a state of siege and despair.
As Sumitomo gazed at the flickering lights of Heian-kyo from a distance, he felt a sense of satisfaction. With every passing moment, his legend grew. The aristocracy that once rejected him now trembled at the mere mention of his name. Yet he knew the real battle was only beginning—and he was ready.
Climax and Fall
A Series of Victories
Fujiwara no Sumitomo knew time was on his side. His armada, now numbering hundreds of ships, was a force that dominated the Seto Inland Sea. Standing on the bridge of his flagship, he watched as his fleet set off on yet another raid. He felt pride and determination—every attack was a step closer to realizing his vision: a world where people like him, rejected by the imperial court, could find their place.
In 940, a series of spectacular victories began. First, his forces attacked Awaji Province, plundering imperial arsenals and destroying local defense units. Next came Sanuki Province, where Sumitomo ordered the administrative buildings to be burned, erasing symbols of the court’s authority over the province. In October, his forces marched into Dazaifu, Japan’s “Western Capital,” a hub of trade and diplomacy with Korea and China. Sumitomo not only looted Dazaifu but demonstrated his power to the aristocrats of Heian-kyo by destroying one of the most significant outposts of imperial authority in the west.
Sumitomo felt he was at his peak. He was certain history would remember him not as a rebel but as the architect of a new order. Yet, deep down, perhaps he knew—history allows only two outcomes. Either he would reach the pinnacle of power and be hailed as the legitimate ruler of a new era, or he would fail—and face defeat, death, and the lasting disgrace of a rebel.
Betrayal in the Ranks
Not everyone in Sumitomo’s army shared his vision of the future. Fujiwara no Tsunetoshi, one of his most trusted commanders, had long fought alongside him. But when the imperial court offered a substantial reward and the promise of amnesty, Tsunetoshi’s loyalty faltered in the face of greed. In February 941, Tsunetoshi betrayed Sumitomo, revealing the location of the Heburi base and the details of its defenses.
The betrayal proved catastrophic. Using Tsunetoshi’s information, imperial forces launched an attack on Heburi. The island, until then impenetrable, was surrounded by the imperial fleet. Sumitomo’s army, caught off guard, attempted to resist, but the sudden assault and the betrayal led to their defeat. Watching the burning base on Heburi, Sumitomo knew that fate had finally caught up with him.
The destruction of Heburi marked a turning point. Sumitomo, with a handful of loyal followers, fled on a small boat, leaving behind years of work and dreams reduced to ashes.
The Final Battles
Despite the loss at Heburi, Sumitomo continued to fight—what other choice did he have? In May 941, he regrouped with his remaining soldiers and launched another attack on Dazaifu. This time, however, the imperial forces were better prepared, and Sumitomo’s forces were too weakened. In the battle at Hakata Bay, Sumitomo’s fleet was completely destroyed. The imperial admiral, Harumi Okura, led the forces that encircled the rebel ships. Sumitomo fought to the bitter end, watching his ships burn and his crews leap into the sea in desperate attempts to save their lives.
“It’s over,” he thought as his last ship vanished beneath the waves. He knew his fleet was gone, his men scattered or dead. Aboard a small boat with his most loyal companions, he fled to Iyo Province—the place where it had all begun.
Capture and Death
Sumitomo’s final days were a frantic flight of a desperate man who knew his time had run out. He hid in the mountains of Iyo, but imperial forces, led by Tachibana no Toyasu, eventually found him. According to one version of the story, Sumitomo was captured and executed on the spot. Another account claims he was imprisoned and died in his cell, abandoned to disease and solitude. We cannot know the truth, but whatever his end, it was undoubtedly cruel.
Why Was Sumitomo’s Rebellion Important?
A Symbol of Changing Times
The Heian period, often regarded as the golden age of courtly culture, was also a time of deep social tensions and transformations that heralded the dawn of a new era—the age of the samurai. The rebellions of Fujiwara no Sumitomo in the west and Taira no Masakado in the east were like warning bells announcing the collapse of the old power structures. The authority of the emperor and the aristocracy, rooted in a centralized bureaucratic system, increasingly clashed with the realities of life in the provinces, where a new ruling class was emerging—the warriors we would come to know as the samurai.
Sumitomo and Masakado represented two worlds—the aristocratic past and the rising class of warriors. Their rebellions, though doomed to fail, revealed that the system based on courtly hierarchy and lineage was beginning to crack. By becoming a pirate king, Sumitomo rejected both the legacy of his clan and loyalty to the court, building his own maritime empire. Masakado, who declared himself the new emperor in the east, challenged the very idea of centralized power. Together, they foreshadowed an era in which the sword would hold greater value than noble lineage.
The Legacy of the Pirate King
The story of Fujiwara no Sumitomo has survived not only in historical records but also in legends. In the Ehime region, where his base was located, Sumitomo has become an almost mythical figure. On Heburi Island and in the vicinity of Dazaifu, traces of his activities remain—places of worship, such as Nakano Jinja, were built to appease his spirit and seek his protection.
In folklore, Sumitomo is sometimes depicted as a champion of the oppressed—a man who fought against the injustices of the court. Other tales portray him as a demonic figure whose greed and ambitions brought death and chaos. Either way, his story remains part of the collective memory, a reminder of the turbulent times in which he lived.
Social Conflicts of the Heian Period
The rebellions of Sumitomo and Masakado were products of their time. The Heian period, renowned for its refined culture, was also an era of extreme social inequality. At the imperial court, aristocrats immersed themselves in poetry, calligraphy, and ceremonies, turning a blind eye to the growing problems in the provinces. The tax burdens imposed on peasants and local craftsmen were immense, while corruption in the imperial administration was rampant.
Dissatisfaction grew in the provinces. Peasants rebelled against unjust taxes, and warriors, increasingly emerging as leaders of local communities, gained more and more significance. Rebellions like Sumitomo's demonstrated that the aristocratic system was no longer capable of controlling the provinces. A new order was needed, where warriors—the future samurai—would take on the roles of defenders and land stewards.
The Birth of a New System
The uprisings of Sumitomo and Masakado acted as catalysts for changes that shaped feudal Japan. Although the imperial court managed to suppress both rebellions, it could not ignore their message. Power began to be delegated to local rulers, leading to the gradual weakening of the central administration. Consequently, the system dominated by the aristocracy gave way to a new order based on loyalty, honor, and military strength—the foundations of the samurai era.
Though Sumitomo did not live to see this transformation, he was one of its precursors. His life and rebellion demonstrated that the world was changing and that old structures were not eternal. His story serves as a reminder that great changes often begin with those who dare to challenge the system. In his fate, one can glimpse the birth of a Japan that, for centuries to come, would be governed by warriors rather than court poets.
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未開 ソビエライ
An enthusiast of Asian culture with a deep appreciation for the diverse philosophies of the world. By education, a psychologist and philologist specializing in Korean studies. At heart, a programmer (primarily for Android) and a passionate technology enthusiast, as well as a practitioner of Zen and mono no aware. In moments of tranquility, adheres to a disciplined lifestyle, firmly believing that perseverance, continuous personal growth, and dedication to one's passions are the wisest paths in life. Author of the book "Strong Women of Japan" (>>see more)
Personal motto:
"The most powerful force in the universe is compound interest." - Albert Einstein (probably)
Mike Soray
(aka Michał Sobieraj)
未開 ソビエライ
An enthusiast of Asian culture with a deep appreciation for the diverse philosophies of the world. By education, a psychologist and philologist specializing in Korean studies. At heart, a programmer (primarily for Android) and a passionate technology enthusiast, as well as a practitioner of Zen and mono no aware. In moments of tranquility, adheres to a disciplined lifestyle, firmly believing that perseverance, continuous personal growth, and dedication to one's passions are the wisest paths in life. Author of the book "Strong Women of Japan" (>>see more)
Personal motto:
"The most powerful force in the universe is compound interest." - Albert Einstein (probably)
Mike Soray
(aka Michał Sobieraj)
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