(Note: My young niece, while studying medieval history in school, during a lesson about the role of the church in the Middle Ages and its political influence, asked me how it was that Buddhism in Japan didn’t involve itself in politics and wars, unlike in Europe. Well… no, that’s not how it was. Let’s tell the story of the Buddhist monks and how it really was.) - author

The Monk with a Naginata and an Army of Armed Followers

A monk with a naginata, a master of hand-to-hand combat, clad in a simple robe, leads armed crowds, ready to fight to the death for a higher cause. Sounds like the hero of an epic anime? Maybe like a character from a video game, considering how many battle-ready Zen monks appear in them? Such images of warrior monks have permeated popular culture, creating the mythology of heroic fighters, prepared to defend their faith against any enemy. But could Buddhism, usually associated with peace, meditation, and tranquility, really become a military force? Well, it turns out that this time, pop culture is right.

Anyone familiar with Japanese history knows that it is a history of wars, battles, and mastery in killing. It couldn’t have been otherwise with Japanese Buddhism, at least in some of its forms. Japanese history is a history of struggle, and religion did not stand idly by, merely observing. Buddhists had an entire network of defensive fortresses, spy networks, and secret training schools where Jodo Shinshu monks trained peasants and craftsmen into fanatical fighters. The Buddhist movement in the form of Ikkō-ikki was a powerful military force that even Oda Nobunaga himself had to reckon with.

Ikkō-ikki is a story of an organized, well-armed, and disciplined force that posed a threat to the power of the great daimyō. Led by monks but composed of peasants, craftsmen, and lower-ranking samurai who had sworn loyalty to Amida Buddha, Ikkō-ikki became a symbol of resistance and unpredictable turns in wars. Armed with naginatas, bows, and newly introduced arquebuses, they fought with the determination of fanatics. Their goals were simple, and their methods clear – the destruction of the enemy and total war. And death on the battlefield with the cry of "nembutsu." Let’s dive in!

First – What Does the Name “Ikkō-ikki” Mean?

The name “Ikkō-ikki” (一向一揆) consists of two parts.

Ikkō

“Ikkō” (一向) consists of two kanji characters. The first, “一” (ichi), means “one,” “first,” or “unity.” It symbolizes simplicity but also the strength that comes from unity. The second character, “向” (kō), means “direction,” “pursuit,” or “turn.” Together, they form the expression “unanimity” or “single-minded,” which can be literally translated as “one direction.” In the context of the Ikkō-ikki movement, “Ikkō” refers to the unwavering, single-minded pursuit of the followers’ goal, which was the protection and propagation of Jodo Shinshu teachings, as well as total concentration on faith in Amida Buddha.

Ikki

“Ikki” (一揆) is also composed of two characters. The first, “一” (ichi), as we know, means “one.” The second character, “揆” (ki), is more complex and refers to “measuring,” “assessment,” or “standard.” In a historical context, “ikki” means “alliance,” “uprising,” or “league” – an organized group of people who join forces for a common purpose. “Ikki” in Japanese history was a term used to describe local alliances or uprisings aimed at defending the interests of their members against external threats, most often feudal rulers.

Together, “Ikkō-ikki” means “unanimous uprising” or “alliance of the like-minded.” This name perfectly captures the essence of the movement – the unification of different social strata, from peasants, through craftsmen, to samurai, under a common religious-political banner to defend their autonomy and faith.

Another related term is “Ikkō-shū” (一向宗), where the last character “宗” (shū) means “school” or “sect.” “Ikkō-shū” can therefore be translated as “unanimous school” or “unanimous sect” and refers to the Jodo Shinshu school, which was the spiritual foundation of the Ikkō-ikki movement. This term emphasizes doctrinal unity and spiritual focus on faith in Amida Buddha, which was the essence of this school of Buddhism.

Let us then explain what Jodo Shinshu was.

Jodo Shinshu

Jodo Shinshu (浄土真宗), also known as the “True Pure Land School,” is one of the most important and popular schools of Buddhism in medieval Japan. It was founded in the 13th century by Shinran, a disciple of Hōnen, who was the founder of the earlier Jodo Shu school. Jodo Shinshu refers to the idea of the “Pure Land” (浄土, jōdo) – a place where souls can be reborn in ideal conditions conducive to attaining enlightenment. The key practice in Jodo Shinshu is the recitation of the name of Amida Buddha (Amida Butsu) in the form of nembutsu, which expresses deep faith in Amida's power to ensure rebirth in the Pure Land.

Shinran, the founder of Jodo Shinshu, introduced several significant changes to his master’s teachings. First and foremost, he simplified religious practices, asserting that one sincere utterance of nembutsu is sufficient to ensure rebirth in the Pure Land, provided it stems from deep faith. Shinran also placed a strong emphasis on egalitarianism – in Jodo Shinshu, there was no division between laypeople and clergy, and priests had the right to marry and lead normal lives, which was revolutionary in the context of traditional Buddhism.

In the context of the Ikkō-ikki movement, Jodo Shinshu served as the spiritual foundation and ideological glue that united diverse social groups with a common goal – to defend their faith and way of life against external threats. The term “Ikkō-shū” not only emphasized unanimity in faith but also reminded people of the religious mission that united hundreds of thousands of people in the struggle for their rights and freedom during times of great political and social upheaval in Japan.

Now that we understand the basic terms, let’s recall how Japan looked during the Sengoku period, where we can most vividly see the power of Buddhist military strength.

Permanent State of War – Sengoku Japan

The Sengoku period (戦国時代, Sengoku jidai), or the “Age of Warring States,” was a time when Japan stood on the brink of chaos, and the old order collapsed into ruins. From 1467 to 1615, the country was engulfed in unending civil wars that tore the islands into small pieces, and the central authority once held by the shogun effectively ceased to exist. Powerful daimyō, feudal lords, became masters of their own territories, and their armies roamed the provinces, fighting for dominance, wealth, and control over their subjects. Over this chaos hung a fog of uncertainty and fear, as each day could bring new threats – an invasion, treachery, famine, or bloody reprisals.

Against this backdrop, Buddhism, which for centuries had served as a spiritual guide and social stabilizer, became a force as complex and full of contradictions as the era itself. Over the centuries, Buddhism in Japan underwent numerous transformations, with various schools, such as Tendai, Shingon, and Zen, competing for influence and the patronage of powerful clans. Monks who once meditated in seclusion became trained warriors – sōhei, ready to take up arms to defend the interests of their sects. Sacred mountains, like Hiei, became fortresses where prayer and meditation mingled with the sounds of armament and preparations for war.

Amid this religious labyrinth, special attention should be given to the Jodo Shinshu sect, which attracted masses of followers with the simplicity of its teachings and the promise of spiritual salvation for all, regardless of social status. Founded by Shinran, a disciple of Hōnen, the Jodo Shinshu school taught that anyone who sincerely and wholeheartedly recites nembutsu – the simple invocation of Amida Buddha’s name – could achieve rebirth in the Pure Land, a realm of eternal peace and enlightenment. In a war-torn country where life was cheap and death could come at any moment, this promise was like a ray of light in the darkness.

The egalitarian Jodo Shinshu quickly gained popularity among peasants, craftsmen, and even lower-ranking samurai who sought spiritual support and comfort in difficult times. While many other Buddhist schools relied on the patronage of elites and aristocracy, Jodo Shinshu became the religion of the people – a force that united thousands under a common banner. It was this faith, combined with determination and desperation, that gave rise to the Ikkō-ikki movement, which changed the face of Japan during the war-torn era.

What is Ikkō-ikki?

Ikkō-ikki – the “Alliance of the Like-Minded” – was a socio-religious movement that emerged in 15th-century Japan, during a time of turmoil and political upheaval. Under the banner of the Jodo Shinshu Buddhist sect, thousands of believers, peasants, craftsmen, and even samurai united to defend their faith and autonomy against the growing power of feudal lords. It was faith that was their main driving force – the simple yet deeply personal invocation of Amida Buddha’s name, ensuring rebirth in the Pure Land, gave them the courage to stand against the mightiest samurai armies. But before they became a force feared by Tokugawa Ieyasu and Oda Nobunaga, they had to organize into a military power – led by a monk named Rennyo (蓮如).

Rennyo: The Architect of Ikkō-ikki

Rennyo (1415–1499), a descendant of Shinran, the founder of Jodo Shinshu, was the spiritual and organizational leader who breathed life into the movement. Born during a time when Japan was torn apart by political strife and civil wars, Rennyo assumed the position of abbot of the Hongan-ji temple (本願寺) in 1457. His teachings and charisma attracted followers from various social strata, from peasants to samurai. It was Rennyo who simplified and reformed the sect’s message, giving it a more egalitarian character – faith in Amida Buddha was sufficient to ensure rebirth in the Pure Land. This was extremely appealing in times when life was uncertain, and war and famine loomed at every turn.

Rennyo skillfully organized communities of believers, establishing new temples and strengthening the network of temples, which became not only spiritual centers but also political and military strongholds. One of the key locations was the Yoshizaki-gobō temple in Echizen Province, where Rennyo took refuge after an attack on Hongan-ji in 1465 by monks from the rival Tendai sect. It was here that the structures began to form that would later develop into the Ikkō-ikki movement. In 1488, Jodo Shinshu followers from Kaga initiated the first uprising, overthrowing the local daimyō and taking control of the entire province. This was an unprecedented moment in Japanese history – for the first time, peasants and monks, with the help of samurai, took power over an entire region.

Structure and Organization of Ikkō-ikki

Ikkō-ikki was a heterogeneous movement, involving monks, peasants, craftsmen, and lower-ranking samurai. Though united by faith in Amida Buddha and the teachings of Jodo Shinshu, the movement had a clear structure. At the top of the hierarchy were the monks, who served as spiritual leaders and organizers (and also instructors of martial arts). The temples were both spiritual and military centers – they functioned as fortresses from which defensive actions were coordinated. The monks, though not all were warriors, served as commanders and spiritual leaders.

Below them were the peasants and craftsmen who formed the core of Ikkō-ikki’s military force. Through simple but powerful faith in nembutsu (念仏) – the recitation of Amida Buddha’s name – they believed that death in battle would guarantee salvation. Their faith was unwavering, making them not only fanatical but also fearless warriors. Their strength lay in numbers and unity, not in elite training. As the movement developed, Ikkō-ikki also utilized modern military technology – arquebuses, introduced to Japan from Europe, became a key element of their tactics, allowing peasants to stand up against well-equipped samurai. Their armament also included traditional naginatas, bows, and swords, as well as banners with religious inscriptions, reminding the fighters of their spiritual mission.

The Buddhist Spy and Military Network

Ikkō-ikki became not only a religious movement but also a complex organizational network that spread across much of the country. Fortresses like Ishiyama Hongan-ji near Osaka or Nagashima on the Pacific coast became strongholds from which monks and their supporters coordinated military, religious, and political activities. Each of these fortresses was not only a place of defense but also a training center for Ikkō-ikki warriors, where novices learned both the art of combat and spiritual practices that strengthened their resolve in battle.

The Ikkō-ikki network was further expanded through secret training locations and spies who infiltrated the structures of enemy daimyō. Thanks to an extensive network of informants, Ikkō-ikki was able to anticipate the movements of their opponents and effectively counter them. Spies, often disguised as wandering monks or merchants, passed on information about the plans of enemy armies, allowing Ikkō-ikki to plan ambushes and prepare to defend their fortresses. As a result, Ikkō-ikki became a true force that could not be underestimated – a network that enveloped the entire country, ready to strike at any moment, always in defense of their faith and autonomy.

What Did the Monks Teach?

Training for Ikkō-ikki monks was a comprehensive process that involved both spiritual and physical preparation, combining religious teachings with advanced combat techniques. Although the Ikkō-ikki monks were not originally warriors, in response to the constant threats from feudal lords, they transformed into skilled fighters capable of conducting effective defensive campaigns. The training process was therefore a crucial element for the survival and success of the movement.

Spiritual Preparation

The first and most important aspect of Ikkō-ikki monk training was spiritual grounding in the teachings of Jodo Shinshu. Monks practiced the recitation of nembutsu (念仏) – the invocation of Amida Buddha’s name – daily, which not only strengthened their faith but also prepared them for death in battle, which they did not see as the end but as a gateway to rebirth in the Pure Land. This psychological training gave the monks steadfastness and courage, making them formidable opponents on the battlefield. They taught their followers that fighting in defense of the faith was an act of the highest piety and that death in this battle was seen as a direct path to salvation.

Martial Arts

Training in martial arts was equally important. Ikkō-ikki monks mastered the art of using various weapons. The most characteristic weapon was the naginata (薙刀) – a long blade mounted on a shaft, ideal for both defense and attack, especially in encounters with mounted samurai. Mastery of the naginata was essential training, but the monks were also skilled in the use of swords (katana), spears (yari), and even the newly introduced arquebuses – firearms that they skillfully used to surprise their opponents.

Their training also included defensive and tactical techniques, such as creating defensive lines, using terrain to their advantage, and guerrilla tactics that were essential in battlefield conditions. They also learned how to fight effectively in tight formations.

Passing Knowledge to the Faithful

As spiritual leaders, Ikkō-ikki monks were responsible for passing this knowledge on to their followers. The faithful, whether peasants, craftsmen, or lower-ranking samurai, were trained in basic combat techniques and the spiritual aspect of their mission. They were not only taught combat skills but also discipline and the understanding that their fight was a sacred duty. The monks taught them how to use their numbers and organization to maximize combat effectiveness, allowing Ikkō-ikki to stand up to even better-equipped and better-trained samurai forces.

Training also included learning how to conduct sieges and defend fortresses. Many Ikkō-ikki followers, who were not skilled in direct combat, served as logisticians, supply providers, and craftsmen responsible for building fortifications and manufacturing weapons. Knowledge of defensive engineering was particularly valuable in the face of sieges, which became a frequent element of conflicts with the daimyō. Thanks to their extensive education and experience, Ikkō-ikki monks were able to transform ordinary people into effective warriors and organize them into efficiently functioning combat units. This combination of spiritual determination and advanced combat skills made Ikkō-ikki a powerful force for decades, one that even the strongest rulers of Japan could not ignore.

Ikkō-ikki at War

The Ikkō-ikki movement, born out of faith and desperation, did not limit itself to defense. It transformed into an armed force that often stood up to the powerful rulers of feudal Japan. Their battles and uprisings became legendary, and the most famous of them, such as the Kaga Uprising, Mikawa Ikko Ikki, or the Siege of Ishiyama Hongan-ji, became permanently etched in the tumultuous history of the Sengoku period.

The Kaga Uprising (1488) and Its Consequences

In 1488, in the province of Kaga (modern-day Ishikawa Prefecture), one of the most significant Ikkō-ikki uprisings erupted. It was a time when Japanese provinces were divided among daimyō fighting for power, and social tensions were at their peak. In Kaga, the local daimyō, Togashi Masachika, who initially benefited from the support of the Jodo Shinshu sect, began to fear its growing power. He tried to limit the influence of temples associated with Hongan-ji, which led to the outbreak of the uprising. In response to the repression, peasants, craftsmen, and samurai loyal to Jodo Shinshu united under the Ikkō-ikki banner and marched against Masachika.

Within a few months, Ikkō-ikki forces took control of the entire province, forcing Masachika to commit seppuku. Kaga became the first region in Japan to fall under the control of a popular uprising, without the involvement of aristocracy or samurai. For nearly a hundred years, Kaga was ruled by an alliance of monks, peasants, and craftsmen, an unprecedented experiment in feudal Japan (a somewhat similar experiment, although fundamentally different, was the Iga Province – where local people also took control of their land. But more on that another time). This success in Kaga did not last forever – in 1580, after many years of fighting, Oda Nobunaga finally crushed the movement in Kaga, restoring daimyō control over the province.

Mikawa Ikko Ikki (1563-1564) and the Conflict with Tokugawa Ieyasu

Another significant moment in the history of Ikkō-ikki was the uprising in Mikawa, which took place from 1563 to 1564. Mikawa, located in what is now Aichi Prefecture, was a strategically important region controlled by the young daimyō Tokugawa Ieyasu (then known as Matsudaira Ieyasu). Ieyasu, who sought to consolidate power and unify the region, encountered strong resistance from the monks and followers of Jodo Shinshu, who had long enjoyed autonomy and privileges.

The conflict began over a dispute regarding the temples’ right to tax independence and exemptions from obligations to the local daimyō. When Ieyasu attempted to impose his authority and force the temples into submission, an uprising broke out. The Ikkō-ikki forces in Mikawa, supported by Ieyasu’s rebellious vassals, organized effective resistance. In the key battle at Kamiwada, Ieyasu personally led his troops, but despite his efforts, the fighting was fierce and resulted in heavy losses on both sides.

Ultimately, after many months of bloody clashes, Ieyasu was forced to negotiate peace on terms favorable to Ikkō-ikki. The rebels managed to maintain their privileges, and Ieyasu, recognizing the potential threat, changed his tactics. Over time, he took measures to weaken the influence of the Jodo Shinshu sect in the region, which eventually allowed him to unify Mikawa under his rule.

The Siege of Ishiyama Hongan-ji (1570-1580) and Its Role in the Struggle Against Oda Nobunaga

The most epic and simultaneously the longest campaign in the history of Ikkō-ikki was the siege of Ishiyama Hongan-ji, the main stronghold of the Jodo Shinshu sect, located on an island at the mouth of the Yodo River, near Osaka. From 1570 onwards, Oda Nobunaga, one of the most ambitious and ruthless daimyō of the Sengoku period, led a campaign aimed at unifying Japan under his rule. However, the powerful fortress of Ishiyama Hongan-ji, defended by thousands of monks and Ikkō-ikki followers, proved to be unconquerable.

The siege lasted for ten years and became one of the bloodiest and most intense confrontations in the history of Japan. The Ikkō-ikki forces, despite numerous attacks and attempts at conquest, managed to hold the fortress due to its strategic location on the island and the strong support of the Mōri fleet – one of Nobunaga’s rivals. The Ikkō-ikki monks defended themselves with determination, conducting heroic counterattacks and repelling Nobunaga’s samurai assaults. Their banners bearing the inscription “Namu Amida Butsu” fluttered over the fortress walls, giving hope to the fighters and reminding them of the spiritual mission they were carrying out.

However, over time, even the most resolute warriors began to succumb to exhaustion and hunger. In 1580, after ten years of relentless siege, Nobunaga managed to cut off supplies to the fortress, forcing its defenders to surrender. Abbot Kennyo, who led the defense of Ishiyama Hongan-ji, agreed to surrender to save the lives of the remaining defenders. Nobunaga, despite his cruelty, for which he was notorious throughout Japan, allowed the monks to evacuate, then ordered the fortress to be burned to the ground, destroying one of the most powerful symbols of resistance against his authority.

The siege of Ishiyama Hongan-ji became a turning point in Japanese history. The fall of this fortress marked the end of the greatest resistance to Nobunaga and symbolized the end of the Ikkō-ikki era as a significant military and political force. Despite their defeat, the memory of their struggle and determination survived, and their story continues to inspire tales and legends of courage and resilience in the face of overwhelming odds.

After the Fall

The fall of Ikkō-ikki had profound and long-lasting consequences for both Japanese society and Buddhism in the country. After the brutal suppression of the movement by Oda Nobunaga and his successors, the religious communities that once served as bastions of resistance were reduced to quieter, more submissive institutions.

The temples, which once served as fortresses and centers of social mobilization, lost their military power. Many monks were forced to surrender or go into hiding, and the independence of religious communities was drastically curtailed by the growing central authority. This process of weakening Buddhism’s influence was one of the first steps toward creating a stronger, centralized Japan under Tokugawa rule.

In a broader context, the fall of Ikkō-ikki also marked the end of an era in which religion could directly influence politics and wars. After the destruction of powerful fortresses like Ishiyama Hongan-ji, Buddhism in Japan became more distanced from direct military conflicts. After taking power, Tokugawa Ieyasu implemented strict regulations concerning religion to prevent the recurrence of similar uprisings. As a result, Buddhism underwent a transformation, becoming a more introspective, spiritual path, separated from politics. Although the Jodo Shinshu sect survived, its role in society became much more limited, and the promotion of ideas of equality and religious independence became quieter in the face of the new, unified government.

Warrior Monks in Pop Culture

“Nobunaga’s Ambition” (Video Game, Koei, 1983)

“Nobunaga’s Ambition” is one of the most well-known series of strategy games set in the Sengoku period. Players take on the role of a daimyō, and their goal is to unify Japan under one banner.

In “Nobunaga’s Ambition,” Ikkō-ikki appears as one of the factions that opposes the player controlling a samurai warlord. Their presence in the game serves as a reminder of the difficulties Oda Nobunaga faced in his attempts to unify Japan (and his bloody response to those difficulties). Ikkō-ikki is portrayed as determined defenders of their lands, ready to face any army.

“Onimusha 2: Samurai’s Destiny” (Video Game, Capcom, 2002)

“Onimusha 2: Samurai’s Destiny” is an action game with horror elements, set in a fictional version of Sengoku-period Japan. The player assumes the role of a samurai who fights against demonic forces, striving to restore peace to lands plunged into chaos.

In “Onimusha 2,” a warrior monk character appears as part of an alliance fighting against supernatural forces. Although the game does not focus directly on Ikkō-ikki, the monk character symbolizes the resistance and determination characteristic of movements like Ikkō-ikki. The warrior monks in the game are depicted as masters of combat, capable of facing both human and supernatural opponents, reflecting their spiritual and physical strength.

“Sengoku Basara” (Anime, Production I.G, 2009)

“Sengoku Basara” is an anime that takes viewers into the tumultuous Sengoku period, depicting the stories of legendary warriors and daimyō in a highly stylized, exaggerated manner. The series is known for its dynamic battles and colorful characters.

In “Sengoku Basara,” the Ikkō-ikki movement appears as one of the factions that the main characters face. In the anime, Ikkō-ikki is portrayed as a united, warrior community that fights against tyranny and oppression. Their leaders, depicted as charismatic and powerful monks, symbolize the strength of faith and determination that were the foundation of their historical counterparts. In “Sengoku Basara,” the fighting monks are powerful warriors who play a significant role in the plot, adding depth to the story and illustrating the complexity of religious conflicts during this period.

“Ikko-Ikki Clan Pack” (DLC for the Game “Total War: Shogun 2,” The Creative Assembly, 2011)

“Total War: Shogun 2” is a strategy game where players can manage one of the clans competing for power in Japan. The “Ikko-Ikki Clan Pack” expansion introduces the Ikkō-ikki movement as a separate faction that players can lead in battles against the samurai rulers.

In this expansion, Ikkō-ikki is portrayed as a religious movement that opposes the daimyō and seeks to spread its faith throughout Japan. Players controlling Ikkō-ikki have access to unique monk-warrior units and special bonuses related to religion and morale. The game presents Ikkō-ikki as a determined and relentless force whose goal is not only military victory but total political-religious domination.

“Ten to Chi to” (Film, Directed by Haruki Kadokawa, 1990)

“Ten to Chi to” (literally “Heaven and Earth”) is an epic historical film that tells the story of the rivalry between two powerful daimyō, Takeda Shingen and Uesugi Kenshin, during the Sengoku period. The film focuses on the Battle of Kawanakajima, one of the most famous battles of that period.

Although the main theme of the film is the conflict between two samurai clans, Ikkō-ikki appears as an important element of the historical background. The Ikkō-ikki movement, with its unwavering faith and determination, is portrayed as a third force that influences the course of events. The film depicts warrior monks as an organized and motivated group with their own goals and ambitions, becoming a serious challenge for the samurai rulers. “Ten to Chi to” vividly shows how movements like Ikkō-ikki were an integral part of the complex political and military puzzle of Sengoku-period Japan, illustrating their role in shaping the country’s fate.

Conclusion

Although the Ikkō-ikki movement was brutally suppressed by Oda Nobunaga and his successors, certain elements of their legacy have survived to this day, leaving a lasting mark on Japan’s culture and social structures. The most visible are the temples associated with the Jodo Shinshu movement, which still function and play an important role in the spiritual life of many Japanese people. Major centers such as the Nishi Hongan-ji temple in Kyoto, where the remains of the original Ishiyama Hongan-ji fortress can be found, still attract both the faithful and tourists, serving as symbols of unwavering faith and resistance to feudal tyranny. These temples, though no longer serving as military fortresses, continue to hold their significance as spiritual support centers for the Jodo Shinshu community.

The Ikkō-ikki movement did not leave behind a unified martial art as we know from the Shaolin monasteries, but the idea of fighting in defense of faith has survived in various forms practiced in traditional Japanese martial arts. Elements of defensive tactics and community organization used by Ikkō-ikki can be seen in some schools of Japanese martial arts. Additionally, in regions like Kaga, the former territories controlled by Ikkō-ikki, there are monuments and plaques commemorating their battles and sacrifices. These memorial sites serve as reminders of their contribution to Japanese history and the role they played in shaping the social and religious structures that have endured to this day.

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 A connoisseur of Asian culture with a deep-seated appreciation for various philosophies of the world. By education, psychologist and Korean philologist. By heart, an Android developer and an ardent tech aficionado. In tranquil moments, he champions a disciplined way of life, firmly believing that steadfastness, perpetual self-enhancement, and a dedication to one's passions is a sensible path for life.

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